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Malnutrition is commonly associated with increased infectious disease susceptibility and severity. Whereas malnutrition might enhance the incidence of disease as well as its severity, active infection can in turn exacerbate malnutrition. Therefore, in a malnourished individual suffering from a severe infection, it is not possible to determine the contribution of the pre-existing malnutrition and/or the infection itself to increased disease severity. In the current study we focussed on two groups of malnourished, but otherwise healthy individuals: moderately malnourished (BMI: 18.4–16.5) and severely malnourished (BMI <16.5) and compared several immune parameters with those of individuals with a normal BMI (≥18.5). Our results show a similar haematological profile in all three groups, as well as a similar ratio of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We found significant correlations between low BMI and increased levels of T helper (Th) 1 (Interferon (IFN)-γ, (interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12), Th2 (IL-4, IL-5, IL-13), as well as IL-10, IL-33 and tumor necrosis factor-α, but not IL-8 or C reactive protein. The activities of arginase, an enzyme associated with immunosuppression, were similar in plasma, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and neutrophils from all groups and no differences in the expression levels of CD3ζ, a marker of T cell activation, were observed in CD4+ and CD8+T cells. Furthermore, whereas the capacity of neutrophils from the malnourished groups to phagocytose particles was not impaired, their capacity to produce reactive oxygen species was impaired. Finally we evaluated the frequency of a subpopulation of low-density neutrophils and show that they are significantly increased in the malnourished individuals. These differences were more pronounced in the severely malnourished group. In summary, our results show that even in the absence of apparent infections, healthy malnourished individuals display dysfunctional immune responses that might contribute to increased susceptibility and severity to infectious diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cerebral malaria (CM) is a severe complication of Plasmodium falciparum infection that results in thousands of deaths each year, mostly in African children. The in vivo mechanisms underlying this fatal condition are not entirely understood. Using the animal model of experimental cerebral malaria (ECM), we sought mechanistic insights into the pathogenesis of CM. Fatal disease was associated with alterations in tight junction proteins, vascular breakdown in the meninges / parenchyma, edema, and ultimately neuronal cell death in the brainstem, which is consistent with cerebral herniation as a cause of death. At the peak of ECM, we revealed using intravital two-photon microscopy that myelomonocytic cells and parasite-specific CD8+ T cells associated primarily with the luminal surface of CNS blood vessels. Myelomonocytic cells participated in the removal of parasitized red blood cells (pRBCs) from cerebral blood vessels, but were not required for the disease. Interestingly, the majority of disease-inducing parasite-specific CD8+ T cells interacted with the lumen of brain vascular endothelial cells (ECs), where they were observed surveying, dividing, and arresting in a cognate peptide-MHC I dependent manner. These activities were critically dependent on IFN-γ, which was responsible for activating cerebrovascular ECs to upregulate adhesion and antigen-presenting molecules. Importantly, parasite-specific CD8+ T cell interactions with cerebral vessels were impaired in chimeric mice rendered unable to present EC antigens on MHC I, and these mice were in turn resistant to fatal brainstem pathology. Moreover, anti-adhesion molecule (LFA-1 / VLA-4) therapy prevented fatal disease by rapidly displacing luminal CD8+ T cells from cerebrovascular ECs without affecting extravascular T cells. These in vivo data demonstrate that parasite-specific CD8+ T cell-induced fatal vascular breakdown and subsequent neuronal death during ECM is associated with luminal, antigen-dependent interactions with cerebrovasculature.

ABSTRACT Malaria is an infectious disease caused by parasites of several Plasmodium spp. Cerebral malaria (CM) is a common form of severe malaria resulting in nearly 700,000 deaths each year in Africa alone. At present, there is no adjunctive therapy for CM. Although the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of CM are incompletely understood, it is likely that both intrinsic features of the parasite and the human host's immune response contribute to disease. The kinase mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a central regulator of immune responses, and drugs that inhibit the mTOR pathway have been shown to be antiparasitic. In a mouse model of CM, experimental CM (ECM), we show that the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin protects against ECM when administered within the first 4 days of infection. Treatment with rapamycin increased survival, blocked breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and brain hemorrhaging, decreased the influx of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into the brain and the accumulation of parasitized red blood cells in the brain. Rapamycin induced marked transcriptional changes in the brains of infected mice, and analysis of transcription profiles predicted that rapamycin blocked leukocyte trafficking to and proliferation in the brain. Remarkably, animals were protected against ECM even though rapamycin treatment significantly increased the inflammatory response induced by infection in both the brain and spleen. These results open a new avenue for the development of highly selective adjunctive therapies for CM by targeting pathways that regulate host and parasite metabolism. IMPORTANCE Malaria is a highly prevalent infectious disease caused by parasites of several Plasmodium spp. Malaria is usually uncomplicated and resolves with time; however, in about 1% of cases, almost exclusively among young children, malaria becomes severe and life threatening, resulting in nearly 700,000 deaths each year in Africa alone. Among the most severe complications of Plasmodium falciparum infection is cerebral malaria with a fatality rate of 15 to 20%, despite treatment with antimalarial drugs. Cerebral malaria takes a second toll on African children, leaving survivors at high risk of debilitating neurological defects. At present, we have no effective adjunctive therapies for cerebral malaria, and developing such therapies would have a large impact on saving young lives in Africa. Here we report results that open a new avenue for the development of highly selective adjunctive therapies for cerebral malaria by targeting pathways that regulate host and parasite metabolism.