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The purpose of this study was to determine if a typical third-grade boy and fifth-grade girl and a boy with learning disabilities could benefit from the combined use of Direct Instruction (DI) flashcard and math racetrack procedures in an after-school program. The dependent variable was accuracy and fluency of saying basic multiplication facts. A single subject multiple baseline design across three sets of facts showed a clear functional relationship between the DI flashcard combined with the math racetrack procedures and increased mastery of multiplication facts. By the end of the study, each participant mastered all target math facts. Additionally, all three participants correctly generalized from oral to written without instruction on written math facts. Also, the students’ confidence in math seemed to grow as their mastery increased. The procedure was cost effective and required little training to implement.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of Augmentative Communication (AAC), specifically a Flip 'n Talk device, with a preschool student with developmental delays. Also, during data collection he was also being evaluated to determine if he had autism (ASD). The ability to functionally requesting assistance and to functionally request the attention of individuals such as teachers, instructional assistants, and later peers was the focus of this study. A multiple baseline design was employed to evaluate the use of AAC across asking assistance or seeking attention. The results of this study suggested that AAC was an effective way to teach functional communication to the participant.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the DI Flashcard system for teaching preliminary mathematic skills to three preschool students. The participants attended a self-contained special education preschool. All three participants’ eligibility category was “developmentally delayed”. A concurrent multiple baseline design across three sets (colors, shapes, and numerals) was use to evaluate the effectiveness of the DI flashcard system. The results indicated that all three participants showed an increase in their performance when DI flashcards were in effect. However, the amount of improvement varied for each participant. The importance of employing evidence-based procedures to teach skills to preschool students with developmental delays was outlined.

The purpose of this study was assess environmental variables associated with pseudo-siezures displayed by a 24-year-old woman with intellectual disabilities. A modified brief functional analysis was conducted over 5 days to determine the environmental correlates of the participant’s seizures. An alertness analysis was conducted to evaluate the participant’s awareness during pseudo seizure episodes. Results suggested that the episodes occurred across all session; thus the participant’s behavior was not maintained by social consequences. Results of an alertness analysis indicated that the participant did not have any control over her pseudo-seizure behavior. This suggests that actual seizure activity was present in the participant.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of hand-over-hand and dot-to-dot tracing procedure to teach a 14-year-old student with autism to write his first name. The participant began the study unable to write any letters in his name. Instead, he used a name stamp when his name needed to be applied to a document in school. When asked to write a letter or word, the student would simply draw a vertical or horizontal line. A multiple baseline and reversal design was used to evaluate hand-over-hand and dot-to-dot tracing. The results indicated the participant increased his ability to write the letters in his first name “T,” “y,” and “e,” from 60% to 100 %. The study was cost effective since it required only small amounts of additional time to complete, and should be easily replicable in other classroom settings.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the copy, cover, and compare (CCC) procedure on improving the mathematics and spelling performance of a freshman attending a high school special education class. The participant was a 16-year-old high school student enrolled in special education classes for 3 periods of the school day. Math problems consisted of single-and double-digit division and fractions. Spelling words used were at the 3rd-grade level. A multiple baseline design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of CCC. The results suggest that the CCC procedure can be used to improve accuracy in mathematics and spelling. The authors discuss the benefits of employing the CCC procedure for secondary students.

The purpose of the present research is to compare the effects of a Direct Instruction flashcard procedure on the mastery of multiplication facts by two high school students with attention deficit hyper-activity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Both students were enrolled in a separate high school for students with behavior disabilities. The effectiveness of the Direct Instruction flashcard procedure was evaluated across three different sets of math problems using a multiple baseline design. In addition, the effectiveness of various ratios of mastered to unmastered facts was examined. The overall outcomes indicate a large increase in correct responding by both of the participants during the Direct Instruction Flashcard System. An intermediate ratio of mastered to unmastered facts was correlated with fewer trials to mastery for each participant. The applicability of employing Direct Instruction flash card procedures was discussed and directions for future research were posed.

The validity of selecting treatment contingencies on the basis of the results obtained through functional analysis is well documented. However, a number of second-generation questions have emerged: For example, what are the parameters required to achieve desired treatment outcomes? More specifically, what is the degree of treatment integrity needed for the successful reduction of problem behavior? This study had two purposes: to describe the relationship between treatment integrity levels and treatment effectiveness and to highlight the importance of reporting the treatment integrity in outcome-based research. The results indicate that a high level of treatment integrity is required for treatment success. Furthermore, the authors found that very low levels of integrity may be required for behavioral reduction procedures (i.e., extinction) if high levels of reinforcement are provided.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the model, lead, and test procedure, as well as a fading procedure with prompts and Direct Instruction with two preschool developmentally delayed students. These procedures were implemented to teach a class of preschoolers to write their names in preparation for their kindergarten transition. The participants were enrolled in a special education preschool and both were referred to the program due to physical as well as academic delays. Signing their name was a daily task that the students needed to accomplish before they started the day. During baseline both students had difficulty with letter identification and formation. The results of the model, lead and test suggested that these were effective procedures. When these were faded, there was little change in both participants handwriting. The benefits of using Direct Instruction procedures and fading for preschool students with physical development delays at the preschool level were ...

We employed a flashcard strategy to teach two high school students with mental retardation their math facts. The study was carried out in a typical self-contained classroom public school setting. We measured both correct responses and errors. The effects of employing flashcards were examined in a multiple baseline design across participants. Overall outcomes indicated that when flashcards were employed there was an increase in their correct rate and a decrease in errors. Applicability of employing flashcards was discussed.

The purpose of the present study is to evaluate the use of a reinforcement package with four middle school students who were below grade level in reading. Data were gathered, independently by two observers, for on-task behavior for the number of correct words read for a two-minute timed trial, and for book pre- and posttests. These data were gathered during Direct Instruction Corrective Reading Lessons. The participants earned points for increases in reading academic behaviors and on-task during the lesson. The effects of the reinforcement package were evaluated in an ABAB single case replication design. The overall outcomes indicate that on-task behavior improved from the low levels during both baselines and increased to high levels when the reinforcement package was in effect. Changes in reading rate were also dramatic with the largest increases found when the reinforcement package was in effect. Increases in pre- and posttest scores were noted for each of the participants. The advantages of em...

This study evaluated the effects of using differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) with a differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) resetting time schedule to reduce stereotypy in a child with Rett Syndrome. The primary purpose of the investigation was to compare latency and choice as dependent measures to identify reinforcers for use within a DRO/A contingency using a resetting time schedule. The treatment contingencies were arranged to decrease the rate of stereotypy and increased functional play skills. Overall, our results support the use of latency to respond as a dependent measure for selecting reinforcers. Keywords: Response Latency, Preference Assessment, Automatic Behavior ********** When working with children who engage in inappropriate behavior, it is relatively easy to identify a social function. Through observation and manipulation of environmental variables, previous research suggests that most problem behavior is maintained by a social function (Iwata et al., 1994). Treatment for behaviors that serve an automatic function are more difficult to identify because social reinforcers are not identified. Specifically, maintaining contingencies are extremely difficult to manipulate because the behavior itself provides reinforcement (Iwata et al., 1994). Often, an attempt is made to identify activities or objects that can compete with the behavior itself (Alberto & Troutman, 2005). Alternatively, attempts can be made to identify substitutable stimuli to replace sensory reinforcement obtained by engaging in the behavior (Piazza, Hanley, & Fisher, 1996). In addition, it has been demonstrated in the literature that substitutable stimuli are (a) preferred and (b) result in decreased levels of problem behavior when presented non-contingently. The purpose of this study was to identify effective reinforcers for use in a treatment package for a young child who engaged in stereotypic behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement. By doing so, we further sought to compare the use of choice versus response latency as a dependent measure for use within a preference assessment. We hypothesized that more effective reinforcers would be identified using response latency as a dependent measure. Specifically, because these stimuli were shown to decrease the occurrence of automatic behavior within the preference assessment, we hypothesized that they were substitutable to the behavior. Method Participants and Setting The participant was a 6-year-old female diagnosed with Rett Syndrome. She was referred by her classroom teacher for the assessment and treatment of stereotypy. Stereotypy was reported to occur at high rates in home and school settings. All observations took place in a 3.m by 4.5m room located adjacent to her classroom. The room was equipped with a two-way window for unobtrusive observation. Data Collection, and Interobserver Agreement The dependent variables were (a) inappropriate vocalizations, which were defined as loud, raspy, noises in the back of the throat occurring in brief bursts; (b) spitting which was defined as having the tongue completely out of the mouth making a spitting noise; (c) hand wringing which was defined as rubbing the pads on the fingers of one hand against the pads on the fingers of the other hand together, usually done by the shoulder; (d) hand flapping defined as moving her hands up and down either by the hips or shoulders; (e) latency, which was defined as the amount of time, in seconds, between the presentation of an item and the first occurrence of a stereotypic response; and (f) choice, which was defined as reaching for one of two objects within a concurrent operant format. Data were collected using three different observational systems: (a) partial-interval recording, (b) event recording, and (c) latency recording. All partial interval recording was collected via videotape and scored later using a 6-s recording system. …

This report examines possession and storage of firearms in low-income urban families with at least one child between 8 and 12 years of age. The data primarily consisted of responses to a survey administered to parents, but these data were supplemented by records obtained from discussion groups composed of children between 8 and 12 years of age. The data were collected from five low-income neighborhoods in a medium sized city in the Pacific Northwest as part of a larger study focusing on the presence of risk factors for substance abuse, violence, and gang activity. All five neighborhoods are known to be plagued by poverty, violence, substance abuse, and gang activity. To make our findings more understandable, we compared our findings from these neighborhoods to similar data from a middle-class neighborhood. Middle-class parents were twice as likely to have firearms in their homes, but were much less likely to keep them loaded and/or unlocked. High rates of victimization, fear of crime, self-protective behavior, and exposure to threats or attacks were associated with keeping firearms for protection and engaging in risky gun behavior in the home.

This article examines prompt training and reinforcement to decrease the amount of time between routine transitions within a self contained transitional kindergarten. A comparison between baseline results for two kindergarten classes for students with behavior disorders and that of prompting plus reinforcement produced an overall decrease in transition time across transitional settings. The use of physical prompting by consequences was found to be an easily implemented and effective set of strategies to reduce the amount of time between transitions in the preschool classroom. Weaknesses in the present research as well as suggestions for future research are provided.

A one-day antecedent analysis and an extended school-based double-blind medication trial were used to assess the effects of Ritalin on the disruptive behavior of a child diagnosed with ADHD. The evaluations took place in an outpatient clinic and in the child's general education classroom. The results of both evaluations indicated that the medication had a positive effect on reducing disruptive behaviors. The investigation suggests that the one-day antecedent analysis procedure could be used as an initial evaluation of the use of Ritalin. More importantly, the one-day trial provided results similar to the outcomes obtained during the school-based evaluation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 235–240, 2004.

In the current investigation, a concurrent operant paradigm was used with 3 young children who displayed severe problem behaviors to identify behavioral function. The children were given a series of choice options varying the availability of parent attention, access to preferred toys, and level of demand. The results showed that all children displayed differential patterns of behavior that appeared to be influenced by the presence or absence of attention and demands, suggesting a behavioral function. The results extended previous applications of reinforcer assessment procedures by using choice to identify antecedent conditions that set the occasion for problem behavior.

To decrease the noncompliance of a child with disabilities in the home and community, a precision request procedure was examined and evaluated in the home and community. Precision requests employed the following format: “Please (requested behavior).” The child was given 10 seconds to start to comply. If the child complied, praise, attention and access to her favorite toy was allowed. If she did not comply, a second command was issued: “You need to (requested behavior).” If this command were followed within 10 seconds by compliance, praise was given. If the child did not comply, she lost her stuffed toy for three minutes. The use of a precision request format was evaluated with an ABAB single subject design. The frequency of child noncompliance was recorded by parents and other child care providers during three separate times in the day (morning, afternoon, and evening). During both baseline conditions noncompliance was high. When precision requests were employed noncompliance decreased. The diffe...

This paper reviews the literature on young children (children under 13) at-risk of firearms injuries, and outlines potential strategies for reducing the disproportionate rate of firearms accidents among low-income children. The available evidence suggests that this problem stems from risky gun storage practices common in low-income homes keeping guns for protection, and these practices, in turn, are a response to high rates of crime victimization and fears of crime. The role that child behavior therapy could assume to reduce the risk of firearm injury to young children and other persons due to these unsafe storage practices is the primary focus of this paper.

The purpose of this research was to determine the effectiveness of a structured free-time contingency for a 12 year old male with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). A multiple baseline design was employed to evaluate the impact of the free-time procedures on attention to task and compliance. The student earned five minutes of free-time for each third of the observations he was task compliant. The child also earned one minute of free-time for each observation during which he was on-task. Free-time consisted of completing jobs for the teacher such as cleaning the chalkboard, decorating the resource room, making signs, organizing tapes, or playing educational games on the computer. The overall outcome indicates increases in compliance and on-task behavior during the structured free-time condition. These procedures were effective and easy to implement in a special education resource room setting for 16 weeks.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a contingency contract for a middle school student with behavior disorders, a ninth grade male enrolled in a self-contained special ed...

The population of children exposed prenatally to alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, and other legal or illegal substances has been rapidly growing in America. The known characteristics of this group include deficits in rule-governed behavior, impulsivity, attention to task, language, sleep attachment, learning, social competence, coordination, hypersensitivity to environmental stimuli, and conduct problems. The purpose of this paper was to describe the characteristics of this population and match known, empirically demonstrated, data-based strategies, such as teacher attention and praise, token reinforcement programs, daily report cards, contingency contracting, self-instructional training, self-management, peer tutoring, Direct Instruction, and combining behavior therapy with stimulant medication therapy, to specific academic and social deficits in children with parental histories of substance abuse. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of bonus points contingent on 80% accuracy in math with four middle-school special education students with behavior disorders were examined. A multiple-baseline design across students was used to evaluate the effects of bonus points. The overall results indicated that higher accuracy was found for math assignments during the bonus points condition than during baseline. This overall outcome was replicated for each subject in the study. The benefits of implementing a bonus contingency within an ongoing classroom token economy with middle-school students with behavior disorders are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of token reinforcement and response cost on the accuracy of spelling performance with three adolescent special education students were examined. A multiple-baseline design across students was used to evaluate the effects of token reinforcement and response cost intervention. A greater percent of accuracy on daily spelling exams was obtained during the token reinforcement plus response cost condition than during the baseline condition. This was replicated for each student. Follow-up data collection indicated maintenance of behavior change over time. The benefits of implementing a token economy with a response cost component with middle-school students with behavior disorders were discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study compares the Add-A-Word spelling program to a traditional basal spelling program in an intermediate grade school classroom. The participants were 16 fifth and sixth grade students enrolled in a private parochial school. A counterbalanced time series design was employed to evaluate the effects of the Add-A-Word program across two groups of students. The overall results indicate that students' weekly tests significantly increased during the Add-A-Word program each time it was in effect. The participants received higher quarterly letter grades in spelling during the Add-A-Word condition than during basal instruction. Retention rates on 9-week, 50 word tests were not affected by either the Add-A-Word or basal procedures but gradually increased over time. Benefits to students as well as the difficulties of implementing the Add-A-Word Spelling program are outlined.

The purpose of this study was to compare reciprocal peer tutoring with a group contingency to a traditional vocabulary program in a regular middle-school classroom. The participants were 20 seventh and 12 eighth-grade students enrolled in a private parochial school. A counter-balanced time-series design was employed to evaluate the effects of reciprocal peer tutoring across the two groups of students. The overall results indicated that when students participated in reciprocal peer tutoring, scores on weekly quizzes in vocabulary were signifcantly higher. Reciprocal peer tutoring with a group contingency was beneficial to middle school students, easy to implement, and a cost- and time-efficient system for teachers and students. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The purpose of this research was to determine if an in-school breakfast program could increase on-task behaviors of 18 high school students. The effects of the in-school breakfast program were examined in a vocational and an academic setting. A multiple-baseline design across settings and students was employed to assess the effects of the in-class breakfast program. Results indicated that an in-school breakfast program was effective in increasing on-task behaviors in both settings. Questionnaires administered to students before and after implementation of the in-school breakfast program indicate positive change toward breakfast by those who participated. These outcomes indicate that an in-school breakfast program may positively influence on-task behaviors of high school students in a vocational setting and an academic setting.

A practical, hands-on method teachers can use in spelling, math, and geography

The present research evaluates the type of data collection procedures that teachers/paraprofessionals, enrolled in service program to train special education teachers, are likely to employ in their respective classrooms. The participants were 69 educators enrolled in a three-year field based program designed to train and endorse special education teachers in the state of Washington. The teachers were instructed in the various types of behavioral measurement and data collection procedures employed in the classroom. Data were collected from 138 individual classroom research projects. A slight majority (52.8%) of participants gathered observational data, while 47.2% of the students collected permanent product data. The type of observational data collection systems that the participants employed varied. Random time sampling was employed in a majority (85.6%) of the cases, frequency recording was chosen by eight participants and time sampling by only three participants None of the participants chose interval r...

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the practice of reciprocal peer tutoring could be used with preschool-aged children with disabilities in a structured setting. The ages of the pupils ranged from 2 years 3 months to 5 years 8 months. A class-wide peer tutoring model was evaluated using a multiple baseline approach across instructional units. The following steps were specifically trained: (1) discriminative stimulus (SD) presentation; (2) praise; (3) stamp delivery; and (4) corrective feedback. Each child was given opportunities to be both tutor and tutee. Data were collected in two experimental settings. The first setting was in a public school which provided services for preschool children with disabilities. The second setting was a private organization which served children with special needs from birth to three years. The results indicate that peer tutoring skills can be successfully taught and used in the classroom with children as young as 27 months of age. Furthermore, there is some...

The purpose was to evaluate the effects of self-recording in reducing off-task behavior with a high school student labeled as attention deficit disordered with hyperactivity (ADHD). The student emitted low rates of attending and was enrolled in a self-contained classroom for the behaviorally disordered. Off-task data were gathered in the student's special education classroom setting. An ABAB single-subject replication design was employed to evaluate effects of a self-monitoring. The results indicate an increase in off-task behavior within the classroom setting. Opinions provided by the other school staff suggested a perceived lack of generalization of treatment gains to other courses in which the student was enrolled. Ratings by a student observer indicate that the severity of disruptions declined during the self-monitoring phases. Possible reasons for this outcome are discussed. Practical implications for the use of the procedures in a secondary classroom are presented.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two spelling programs on the weekly spelling performance of 5 underachieving elementary school students. The subjects were 3 boys and 2 girls between the ages of 8.3 and 9.6 years. The students were identified as being the poorest spellers in a Grade 3 class. The spelling programs compared were the Add-A-Word Spelling Program and Compu Spell (a commercial computer spelling program). Data were gathered on spelling accuracy in both the regular classroom and in the learning assistance classroom (special education class) throughout an entire school year. A multi-element baseline design was used to compare the effectiveness of each program. The results indicated that both programs improved the spelling achievement of the students and that this improvement was sustained throughout the duration of the study. Reasons for the outcomes are discussed.

The effects of written feedback on accuracy in reading with 5 students enrolled in a self-contained classroom for behaviorally disordered children and youth were evaluated. Written feedback, placed on students' reading assignments, was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across students. The outcomes indicated improved accuracy in reading when written feedback was provided by the teacher. This finding was replicated across all 5 students. The students also rated the written feedback procedure favorably. Differences between previous research and the present outcomes were examined. The benefits of using written feedback as an intervention procedure with behaviorally disordered children, youth, and other student populations are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of frequent testing on the performance of high school algebra students. A counterbalanced ABAB design in which two classes of Grade 11 algebra students were administered tests on a weekly and biweekly schedule was used. Each testing condition lasted for 2 months, and data were collected for a total of 8 months. The results indicated a definite improvement in performance during the weekly versus biweekly testing. This outcome was replicated each time that more frequent testing was in effect. Low- and middle-achieving students generated the higher gains. A questionnaire given to the students at the end of the study indicated a preference by the students for weekly testing conditions.

The purpose of the present study was to determine if contingent free time could improve the homework completion of senior high school English students. The subjects were two groups of 50 12th grade students enrolled in English classes. A combination multiple baseline and ABAB single subject replication design was employed to evaluate the effects of the free-time contingency. During the free time condition, completion of homework assignments earned each student three minutes of early dismissal. The free time procedure increased the frequency of homework completion. The ratings by the students were positive with respect to the use of free time to improve student performance. The free-time procedure was effective, and practical and record keeping was minimal.

Gonzaga University's program in behavior analysis for teachers and other personnel entering the special education profession is described. Both undergraduate and graduate preparation programs place emphasis on research competencies. Brief descriptions of the program requirements and instructional methodology are provided together with examples of published student research.

A single case ABAB experimental design was used to evaluate a modified peer tutoring spelling game to increase the spelling performance of 4 fifth-grade students who were poor spellers. The result indicated that the spelling performance increased on weekly tests when the spelling game was in effect. Also, the students reported that they favored peer tutoring for spelling instruction over the traditional method. Benefits of the peer tutoring spelling game such as friendly competition, ease of implementation, etc. were discussed.

This study evaluated the effects of daily practice writing spelling words in sentences on the generalization of the spelling words to written work. Subjects were four (two female and two male) mildly mentally handicapped students aged 8 to 13 in an individual progress program. An ABAB design was employed to evaluate the effects of writing spelling words in sentences. During the baseline condition, spelling words were practiced without writing the target words in sentences. During the sentence practice condition, students were required to write the target spelling words in self-generated sentences. The results show that generalization of the target spelling words to written work was improved by sentence writing. A follow-up condition indicated maintenance of treatment effects over time.

A four-phase investigation was completed to analyze the utility of forced-choice preference assessments when response effort and reinforcer delays are altered within a subsequent reinforcer assessment. The results indicated that access to highly preferred stimuli continued to serve as a reinforcer when increased response effort was required. When reinforcer delay was increased, the utility of preferred stimuli to serve as a reinforcer was variable. Despite stimuli continuing to serve as reinforcers for academic task engagement, increased response effort and reinforcer delay resulted in an increased level of aberrant behavior.

In an evaluation of effects of self-monitoring on the on-task behavior by a preschool child with disabilities, analysis indicated that self-monitoring increased the child's on-task behavior in each of three settings in the classroom. The import of these findings for preschool education was noted.

This paper reviews recent literature on the characteristics of females who exhibit anorexic or bulimic symptoms. Although researchers categorize bulimics as either binge/restrictors or binge/purgers, this paper does not distinguish between the two with regard to characteristics. Personal, cognitive, and physical characteristics, as well as external influences, are examined for each. An additional purpose of the paper is to provide an overview of risk factors that may predispose an individual to bulimia nervosa or anorexia nervosa.

The present analysis examined grade point averages (GPA), subject-matter test scores, and attendance for 274 students enrolled in a high school at the beginning of the 1992–1993 school year by the number of hours worked per week in the previous year (1991–92) and in the current school year (1992–1993). The over-all outcomes indicated that working fewer than 10 hours per week had small adverse effects on each measure. Students working from 10 to 20 hours per week had lower grade point averages and attendance. Students working over 20 hours per week had depressed test scores and grade point averages and more absences than other students who worked less or did not work.

The purpose of the present case study was to evaluate use of a timeout ribbon with and without student-selected consequences on the compliance of a pre-school student with disabilities. An ABACBC single-subject replication design was used. Compliance was low during the first baseline condition. When the timeout ribbon procedure was implemented in the classroom, compliance increased, but a return to baseline produced low compliance. When consequences were added to the timeout ribbon procedure, the child's compliance improved further. Additional replications of timeout ribbon and the timeout ribbon plus consequences generated less and less compliance. Possible reasons for the lack of robust findings were discussed.

Summary.-The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects for three famiLies, each with a fifth-gade child at risk, of training in skills such as communicating with teachers and administrators, providing a quiet place for their child to work, and praising their child's appropriate changes in academic and social behaviors. The caregivers were trained by a university smdent in these skills and evaluated in an AB time series design. All three families showed increased involvement in the school. Two of the three children improved performance both at school and at home. Schools and persons in the community may assist students at risk by training parents in educational skds designed to help children complete work at school and at home and to increase the parents' contacts with the schools (Vacha & McLaughlin, 1992, 1993). The present study evaluated the effectiveness of training families with fifth-grade children who were at risk for school failure. Three 10-yt-old children, two mothers, and one grandmother participated. Each child had been identified by the fifth grade teacher as being at risk for school failure on the basis of classroom behavior, academic performance, and home environment. In two families on public assistance, fathers were terminally ill and not at home. In the third family a grandmother was raising a child with fetal alcohol syndrome. Weekly home and school visits were made to follow-up each week's activities. The objectives of home visits were to help caregivers learn to seek answers concerning the children's school performance and to help design home programs to aid parents in establishing control of children's behaviors. Target behaviors selected by these caregivers included homework completion, chore completion, showing consideration for other students, and helping each other in the classroom. Each task was individualized and consequences (books and materials that could be used to reward the children) were provided caregivers. At the end of each day, the student and caregiver and the student and teacher reviewed and graphed each child's perfoi-ma~ce. During baseline, Child 1 completed 50.0% of the homework and Children 2 and 3 0.0%. After two visits, Child 1 completed 96.4% of his homework, and Child 2 completed 71.0% of his homework. After Week 3, Child 3 completed no homework assignments. Baseline data for completion

The effectiveness of contingency contracting to improve the on-task behavior of 3 primary-age students was evaluated using an ABABA single-subject replication design. The contract was developed by the teacher and the consequences were selected by the students. Increases in on-task behavior were observed each time that the contingency contracts were in effect. This study has important implications for the use of contracting with primary school children.

18 students were taught Grade 9 mathematics in a Glasser approach in which need-satisyfing strategies were used. 16 control students were traditionally taught the regular program. Pre- and posttest scores on an Alberta Education Achievement examination and a teacher-designed questionnaire showed groups scored similarly on achievement but the Glasser group had a significantly more positive mean on attitude at posttest, supporting Glasser's position for attitude only.