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Scholars have suggested that emotions are evolved adaptations that increase fitness by adjusting the response of the individual to the specific situation. Thus, the particular emotion experienced by an individual should be dependent on whether the situation is a threat/opportunity, in the physical/social domain, and if the outcome is a success/failure. Nesse and Ellsworth (2009 (See CR32)) created a model around this idea that predicts which emotions should arise in these particular situations. The current study empirically tested this model using the virtual simulation program Second Life. 50 (44 female, 6 male, M.sub.age = 21.10 years, Age range: 18-30 years) participants' avatars were placed in socially and physically threatening and opportunistic situations; further, participants were randomly assigned to succeed or fail at each task. After completing each task, participants rated the degree to which they experienced the emotions predicted by the model to arise in these situations. Results found the social opportunity, physical threat, and social threat conditions matched those emotions predicted by the model., Author(s): Amanda E. Guitar [sup.1], Daniel J. Glass [sup.2], Glenn Geher [sup.3], Michael K. Suvak [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.411015.0, 0000 0001 0727 7545, University of Alabama, , 350 Marrs [...]

Objective: We examined 4 separate dimensions of functional social support (tangible, appraisal, self-esteem, and belonging) as predictors of change in depression over 4.5 years in a sample of women reporting intimate partner violence. Method: Participants were recruited as they sought help for violence perpetrated by a current or former male partner. Three hundred eighty-eight participants completed the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (Cohen, Mermelstein, Kamarck, & Hoberman, 1985), the Conflict Tactics Scale-2 (Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy, & Sugarman, 1996), and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977) at the baseline assessment. Participants were reevaluated on 9 follow-up assessment occasions over approximately 4.5 years, during which they completed the CES-D. Results: Growth curve analyses revealed that belonging, or the perceived availability of people one can do things with, was the only dimension that predicted changes in depressive symptoms when controlling for initial depressive symptom levels. Higher levels of belonging support reported at the baseline assessment were associated with larger decreases in depression. Conclusions: The findings of the current study suggest that interventions should consider ways to get survivors connected to informal social networks. Neither perceived availability of material aid nor availability of someone to talk about one's problems or serve as a positive comparison when comparing oneself to others was associated with decreased depression over time. Only perceived availability of people one can do things with (i.e., belonging support) exhibited salutary effects. (Contains 3 tables, 3 figures and 5 footnotes.)

Suicidal behavior among military personnel is of paramount public health importance because of the increased risk of death from suicide in this population. Pre- and post-Marine recruit training risk factors for suicide attempts among current and former Marines were examined in 10 years following recruit training. The characteristics of the subsample of current and former Marines who died by suicide during this time are also described. Stressful and traumatic life events (e.g., childhood physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, sexual harassment during recruit training) and pre-recruit training suicide attempts emerged as having strong associations with post-recruit training attempts. Half of those who died by suicide in the 10 years following recruit training endorsed at least one significant life stressor prior to joining the Marines. This study highlights the importance of screening for stressful and potentially traumatic experiences occurring both before and during military service as part of a comprehensive suicide risk assessment in military samples. (Contains 3 tables.)

Objective: Trauma-focused psychotherapies reduce both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and co-occurring depression. However, little is known about the relationship between changes in PTSD and depression during treatment. This study examined the association between changes in PTSD and depression during the course of cognitive processing therapy (CPT) and its treatment components. Method: Data were drawn from a dismantling trial investigating the comparative efficacy of the components of CPT (Resick, Galovski, et al., 2008). One hundred twenty-six women (mean age = 36.14 years) from the original randomized intent-to-treat sample (N = 150) who attended at least 1 treatment session were included in this study. Participants diagnosed with PTSD were assigned to 1 of 3 treatment conditions: the full CPT protocol (n = 44), the cognitive therapy component of CPT (n = 39), and the written account component of CPT (n = 43). The majority of the sample self-identified as Caucasian (67%; 29% African American and 4% Other). Primary outcome measures included the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale and Beck Depression Inventory-II, administered at 8 time points (baseline, weekly throughout 6 weeks of treatment, and posttreatment). Results: Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to examine relationships between PTSD and depression during treatment. Results indicated that changes in PTSD and depression were strongly related. Multilevel mediation analyses revealed that changes in PTSD and depression occurred concurrently, with lagged analyses providing no evidence that changes in symptoms of 1 disorder preceded changes in the other. Conclusions: Results suggest that changes in PTSD and depression occur contemporaneously during CPT. (Contains 1 table, 1 figure and 3 footnotes.)

Theoretical and conceptual models of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom progression in youth have identified social functioning as having a central influence. Yet a dearth of research has examined the bidirectional temporal associations between PTSD symptoms and social functioning. This study is the first to investigate these temporal dynamics in a sample of adolescents in trauma-informed residential treatment (N= 453; M age = 15.77 [range = 12.12–18.95], SD = 1.55; 57.2% female). The UCLA PTSD Reaction Index for DSM-5 was analyzed as a measure of youth-reported PTSD symptoms and the Interpersonal Problems subscale of the Children's Depression Inventory, 2nd edition was analyzed as a measure of youth-reported social functioning issues. The Social Problems subscale from the Child Behavior Checklist was analyzed as a measure of clinician-reported social functioning difficulties. Measures were completed at baseline and then approximately every three months for the duration of treatment. Multivariate lagged analyses were used to examine the temporal, bidirectional associations between PTSD symptoms and social functioning. Results indicated that while controlling for length of stay, trauma exposure, age, and gender, reductions in PTSD symptoms predicted subsequent reductions in social functioning problems across both measures (prs =.12-.16), and that improvement in interpersonal relationships predicted subsequent decreases in PTSD symptoms (pr =.12). Taken together, these findings highlight the importance of healthy social relationships for decreasing adolescent's psychological distress. Treatments that include components that target social functioning in addition to symptom reduction may maximally benefit youth with trauma-related psychopathology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We conducted a long-term follow-up (LTFU) assessment of participants from a randomized controlled trial comparing cognitive processing therapy (CPT) with prolonged exposure (PE) for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Competing hypotheses for positive outcomes (i.e., additional therapy, medication) were examined. Method: Intention-to-treat (ITT) participants were assessed 5-10 years after participating in the study (M = 6.15, SD = 1.22). We attempted to locate the 171 original participants, women with PTSD who had experienced at least one rape. Of 144 participants located, 87.5% were reassessed (N = 126), which constituted 73.7% of the original ITT sample. Self-reported PTSD symptoms were the primary outcome. Clinician-rated PTSD symptoms, comorbid diagnoses, and self-reported depression were secondary outcomes. Results: Substantial decreases in symptoms due to treatment (as reported in Resick, Nishith, Weaver, Astin, & Feuer, 2002) were maintained throughout the LTFU period, as evidenced by little change over time from posttreatment through follow-up (effect sizes ranging from pr = 0.03 to 0.14). No significant differences emerged during the LTFU between the treatment conditions (Cohen's d = 0.06-0.29). The ITT examination of diagnostics indicated that 22.2% of CPT and 17.5% of PE participants met the diagnosis for PTSD according to the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (Blake et al., 1995) at the LTFU. Maintenance of improvements could not be attributed to further therapy or medications. Conclusions: CPT and PE resulted in lasting changes in PTSD and related symptoms over an extended period of time for female rape victims with extensive histories of trauma. (Contains 3 tables, 1 figure, and 5 footnotes.)

Objective: Women who develop symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression subsequent to interpersonal trauma are at heightened risk for future intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is effective in reducing PTSD and depression symptoms, yet limited research has investigated the effectiveness of CBT in reducing risk for future IPV among interpersonal trauma survivors. Method: This study examined the effect of CBT for PTSD and depressive symptoms on the risk of future IPV victimization in a sample of women survivors of interpersonal violence. The current sample included 150 women diagnosed with PTSD secondary to an array of interpersonal traumatic events; they were participating in a randomized clinical trial of different forms of cognitive processing therapy for the treatment of PTSD. Participants were assessed at 9 time points as part of the larger trial: pretreatment, 6 times during treatment, posttreatment, and 6-month follow-up. Results: As hypothesized, reductions in PTSD and in depressive symptoms during treatment were associated with a decreased likelihood of IPV victimization at a 6-month follow-up even after controlling for recent IPV (i.e., IPV from a current partner within the year prior to beginning the study) and prior interpersonal traumas. Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of identifying and treating PTSD and depressive symptoms among interpersonal trauma survivors as a method for reducing risk for future IPV. (Contains 1 figure, 2 tables and 2 footnotes.)

To investigate the interactive process of changes in social anxiety and depression during treatment, the authors assessed weekly symptoms in 66 adult outpatients with social phobia (social anxiety disorder) who participated in cognitive- behavioral group therapy. Multilevel mediational analyses revealed that improvements in social anxiety mediated 91% of the improvements in depression over time. Conversely, decreases in depression only accounted for 6% of the decreases in social anxiety over time. Changes in social anxiety fully mediated changes in depression during the course of treatment. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings for the relationship between anxiety and depression are discussed.

Background: The unified protocol (UP) is a promising transdisgnostic treatment for emotional disorders; limited data exists with trauma‐exposed populations. This study compared effectiveness of the UP, presented centered therapy (PCT), and treatment as usual (TAU) in trauma‐exposed veterans presenting to routine care. Method: Trauma‐exposed veterans with one or more emotional disorder diagnoses participated in a pilot hybrid‐1 effectiveness/preimplementation study. Thirty‐seven male and female veterans were randomized to one of three conditions. Results: Multilevel growth curve modeling demonstrated improvement over time across conditions with large effect sizes (range: −2.15 to −3.32), with the UP demonstrating the greatest change. The between group effect sizes for reductions in number of comorbid diagnoses were medium to small and statistically significant (TAU and UP, d = 0.49, p =.056; TAU and PCT d = 0.18, p =.166, UP and PCT d = 0.31, p =.229). Only the UP led to a decrease in the number of comorbid diagnoses (d = −0.71). Psychosocial functioning varied by group, with slight increases in impairment in PCT and TAU, and medium effect size reduction in the UP. Only the UP exhibited significant decreases in self‐reported anxiety and depression. Between group differences for UP and PCT were medium to large and statistically significant for depression across two measures (d = −0.72 to d = −1.40). Conclusions: This represents the first trial examining effectiveness of the UP, PCT, and TAU in trauma‐exposed veterans. Despite a small sample, large effect size differences demonstrated promising advantages for the UP. Trial Registration Number: NCT02944994. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study examined static and time-varying risk factors for perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV) among men in treatment for alcohol use disorders. Method: Participants were 178 men diagnosed with alcohol abuse or dependence and their partners. Most (85%) of the men were European American; their average age was 41.0 years. Participants completed measures assessing initial alcohol problem severity, baseline beliefs related to alcohol use, antisocial personality characteristics, alcohol and drug use, relationship adjustment, and IPV. Results- According to couples' reconciled reports, 42% of participants perpetrated IPV at baseline. Among this group, the IPV recurrence rate was 43% at 6-month follow-up and 36% at 12-month follow-up. For participants without IPV perpetration at baseline, new incidence of IPV was 15% and 7% at the 6-month and 12-month follow-up points, respectively. Fixed marker predictors of IPV rates included baseline alcohol problem severity variables, baseline beliefs related to alcohol use, and antisocial personality characteristics. Variable risk factor predictors included alcohol and drug use variables, relationship adjustment factors, and anger. Alcohol use variables and anger were associated with new incidents of IPV among those without reported IPV at baseline only. Conclusions: Findings suggest that assessing and monitoring IPV occurrence by both partners is important for men in treatment for alcohol use disorders. Results indicate vulnerability factors that may identify individuals at risk for IPV and provide targets for IPV prevention among those with alcohol use disorders. These findings can aid in the development of more comprehensive models that more precisely predict IPV. Keywords: partner violence, alcohol and drug use, antisocial personality, relationship adjustment, anger DOI 10.1037/a0021093

Cognitive--behavioral therapy (CBT) and pharmacotherapy are similarly effective for treating panic disorder with mild or no agoraphobia, but little is known about the mechanism through which these treatments work. The present study examined some of the criteria for cognitive mediation of treatment change in CBT alone, imipramine alone, CBT plus imipramine, and CBT plus placebo. Ninety-one individuals who received 1 of these interventions were assessed before and after acute treatment, and after a 6-month maintenance period. Multilevel moderated mediation analyses provided preliminary support for the notion that changes in panic-related cognitions mediate changes in panic severity only in treatments that include CBT. Keywords: mediation, cognitive-behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy, imipramine, panic disorder

Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) for Social Phobia is effective in both group and individual formats. However, the impact of group processes on treatment efficacy remains relatively unexplored. In this study we examined group cohesion ratings made by individuals at the midpoint and endpoint of CBT groups for social phobia. Symptom measures were also completed at the beginning and end of treatment. We found that cohesion ratings significantly increased over the course of the group and were associated with improvement over rime in social anxiety symptoms, as well as improvement on measures of general anxiety, depression, and functional impairment. In conclusion, findings are consistent with the idea that changes in group cohesion are related to social anxiety symptom reduction and, therefore, speak to the importance of nonspecific therapeutic factors in treatment outcome. Keywords: Social phobia; Social anxiety disorder; Group cohesion; Cognitive-behavior therapy

To investigate the interactive process of changes in social anxiety and depression during treatment, the authors assessed weekly symptoms in 66 adult outpatients with social phobia (social anxiety disorder) who participated in cognitive-behavioral group therapy. Multilevel mediational analyses revealed that improvements in social anxiety mediated 91% of the improvements in depression over time. Conversely, decreases in depression only accounted for 6% of the decreases in social anxiety over time. Changes in social anxiety fully mediated changes in depression during the course of treatment. The theoretical and clinical implications of these findings for the relationship between anxiety and depression are discussed. Keywords: Social anxiety, social phobia, depression, cognitive-behavior therapy, treatment mechanisms, mediator of change

This two-part investigation examined associations between service in Vietnam and indices of long-term general life adjustment using a national sample of male and female members of the Vietnam generation. In Study 1, we documented reasonably high levels of satisfaction and attainment among Vietnam veterans, levels that differed minimally, on average, from those who served elsewhere and those who never served in the military. In Study 2, dimensions of war-zone stressor exposure were only marginally related to satisfaction and attainment, in contrast with research documenting strong relationships with psychopathology. These findings support the importance of expanding our thinking about dimensions of mental illness and mental health.

Objectives: Recent initiatives have highlighted the importance of investigating clinically relevant variations in social processes that contribute to mental illness. Surprisingly little research has examined the associations between socially and clinically relevant transdiagnostic factors, such as social anxity (SA) and rejection sensitvity (RS), on theory of mind (ToM) decoding ability. Methods: The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task and self‐report measures of SA and RS were completed by 199 adult participants. Results: Linear regression analyses suggest a specific difficulty decoding positive emotion associated with SA and global decrements in ToM associated with RS that may reflect a negative interpretation bias. Conclusions: These findings may have important implications for understanding how those with SA and RS perceive and navigate social interactions, which may contribute to the maintenance of symptoms and decreased psychosocial functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examined long-term general life adjustment among members of one trauma-exposed population, Vietnam veterans, using data from a nationally representative sample. Our particular concern was the relationship between coping strategies used in the war zone and the outcomes of achievement, life satisfaction, and lifetime adaptation (the latter defined in terms of the absence of psychosocial problems in core life domains) as a function of level of combat exposure. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses supported a hypothesized quadratic interaction between problem-focused coping and the outcomes of achievement and lifetime adaptation, with this form of coping most strongly related to adjustment (positively) at moderate levels of combat exposure. One aspect of emotion-focused coping, the use of wishful thinking, likewise interacted in a quadratic manner for the dependent variable of achievement, exhibiting its strongest association with adjustment (negatively) at moderate levels of combat exposure. The importance of interactions between coping and stressors, especially quadratic interactions, is emphasized.