Search

Free throw shooting percentage has averaged around 75% for nearly five decades. However, free throw percentages significantly increased to 79% during the 2020 spectator-less National Basketball Association season. The current study investigated if the elevated free throw shooting percentage observed during the spectator-less season has returned to the 50-year average now that spectators have returned to National Basketball Association arenas. Moreover, home and away free throw percentages were examined to determine if a potential home-field advantage contributed to this phenomenon. Analyses revealed that the free throw shooting percentage from the spectator-less season was significantly higher than the two spectator-filled seasons preceding and following the spectator-less season. Furthermore, the analyses found no differences in free throw percentages between home and away games. While the free throw shooting percentage increased to 79% during the spectator-less season, the free throw shooting percentage returned to the 50-year average (i.e., ~75%), following the spectator-less season. Additionally, it does not appear that a perceived home-field advantage influenced the increased free throw performance observed in the spectator-less season. Multiple factors likely contributed to this free throw phenomenon, including the environmental characteristics shaped by the lack of spectators.

Misinformation on social media is a major problem facing our society. The experience deriving from use does not guarantee success in identifying false information. This study seeks to determine whether an active role in social media impacts on informational skills. For this purpose, we designed a survey that was administered to 756 young people between 16 and 26 years of age from different educational levels. The results show a profile of creative users who participate in generating their own content and sharing their recommendations openly, as opposed to another profile, the "spectators", focused on entertainment and interaction. The creator profile is the variable that most contributes to reporting fake news on social media. When contrasting information, educational level is the most relevant aspect, although academic results and creator users also represent a significant contribution. Greater trust in the sources found on social media identifies the active profile, while distrust is associated with the spectators. We recommend that media education puts in place actions intended to recuperate trust in social media, so that they can be utilized critically, encouraging active, not reactive use.

Sport events of various scales are becoming increasingly popular in modern society, attracting diverse audiences and offering significant entertainment value. This study aims to explore the factors that influence spectators’ intention to attend the stadium, by extending theory of planned behavior model from the perspective of perceived value. Using a quantitative research approach, the study involved a sample size of 334 spectators surveyed from the 2023 Vietnam Student Football Championship and utilized Smart PLS version 4.0 for data analysis. The results indicated that perceived enjoyment significantly affects both attitude (β = 0.358, p = 0.000) and perceived value (β = 0.712, p = 0.000). Perceived fee negatively affects attitude (β = –0.084, p = 0.025) and perceived value (β = –0.068, p = 0.047). Perceived risk negatively affects attitude (β = –0.130, p = 0.001) but does not significantly affect perceived value. Attitude positively influences intention (β = 0.227, p = 0.000), and perceived value significantly influences both attitude (β = 0.293, p = 0.000) and intention (β = 0.437, p = 0.000). Team identification moderates the relationship between attitude and intention (β = 0.128, p = 0.010). The findings highlight the importance of enhancing perceived value to positively shape spectators’ attitude and intention, thereby increasing attendance at sport events.

Previous research has determined that home field advantage (HFA) is positively related to crowd density. Isolating this effect is a substantial empirical challenge as crowd density is endogenous with home win-likelihood via fan interest. We consider a natural-experimental setting that introduces exogenous crowd-density variation into National Football League (NFL) games. COVID-19 safety protocols allow us to disentangle crowd-presence, crowd-density, and built-environment effects upon HFA. We find strong evidence that crowd presence is a significant, substantial source of HFA, but crowd density is not. No-crowd games in 2020 featured no measurable HFA conditional upon team strengths, whereas partially fan-restricted games featured no significant decline in HFA relative to games without crowd restrictions (20162019 and 2021). Results suggest HFA is fully attributable to crowd presence, with no evidence of stadium familiarity or travel distance effects. Betting markets efficiently predicted the partial-crowd effect from season's outset but adjusted incrementally (behaviorally) to incorporate the true no-crowd effect only by season's end. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to develop a Female Sports Spectator Motivation Scale to assess the factors that influence female consumer behavior at sports events. In Study 1, the Delphi method was employed to identify key factors and develop scale items. Participants (n = 410) were selected from the regular Chinese Professional Baseball League season in Taiwan. Study 2 involved participants (n = 413) from the same season, and a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to assess the predictive validity. Descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis were utilized to validate the scale. The results identified stress reduction, emotional connection, game content, aesthetics, self-realization, economics, and social facilitation as influential factors in female sports spectator behavior. This research contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of female sports fans and lays the groundwork for tailored approaches to engage and cater to this important and growing market segment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the first attempt to describe and explain the varying patterns of support for football in Australia from the very early games played by First Nations people and the arrivals from overseas down to the present day. It discusses the Indigenous forms of football and the subsequent involvement of Indigenous people in the codified games of the nineteenth century. The majority of the article covers the development of spectatorship since codification and tries to bring out the distinctive features of changing Australian spectatorship where this is appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation of the narrative prospects of urban pictures in the scenic tradition is devoted co Hans Memling's painting depicting a sequence of Passion scenes set in a topographical view of Jerusalem. In refuting Goodman's view that the painting offers 'not only no direction but no order of telling at all', attention is drawn to the celling rhetoric of certain 'micro-scenic' core motifs, whose mature typiconic features emerged only with the formation of che scenic tradition's full array of picture types. Ir is conjectured chat aposcopic vision may well be a source of scenic parallels between distance and proximity, and hence also of narrative parallels between prospector and sightseer roles implicic in various scenic piccure types.

Based on the experiences of 15 Latina/o undocumented parents, this qualitative study identifies three distinct ways Latina/o immigrant parents understand their role in their children's post-secondary aspirations: "confident partners," "motivational supporters," and "uncertain spectators." By comparing and contrasting these and their corresponding supportive behaviors, I argue that parents' sense of self-efficacy is a determinant factor of their engagement in their children's post-secondary planning. Thus, to best support Latina/o immigrant parents support their children in their post-secondary aspirations, it is essential that secondary schools understand the underlying mechanisms that lead parents to have different understandings of their roles in this process.

Ketertarikan dan antusiasme para penggemar bulutangkis di Indonesia cukuplah sangat besar. Dilihat dari penyelenggaraan sebuah turnamen berskala Internasional yang diadakan di Istora Senayan yaitu Indonesia Open S1000, menjadi salah satu yang dinantikan oleh para penggemar bulutangkis untuk bisa menghadiri setiap tahunnya. Harga tiket yang ditawarkan mengalami kenaikan dari tahun ke tahun yang menjadi lebih mahal. Banyak para penggemar yang mengeluhkan akan hal tersebut di platform media sosial dan berkomentar untuk menurunkan harga tiket tersebut. Namun, hal tersebut tidak mengurungkan niat penggemar dan tiket tetap terjual habis. Sehingga hal tersebut menunjukkan adanya kesenjangan atau ketidaksesuaian. Oleh karena itu, tujuan utama penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat pengaruh event quality, emotional, spectators satisfaction pada future intention pengunjung. Jenis penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan kuantitatif metode korelasional. Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah data primer dengan metode kuesioner kepada pengunjung Indonesia Open S1000. Teknik analisis data dengan menggunakan regresi analisis jalur (path analysis) dan sobel test. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa event quality dan emotional berpengaruh secara langsung dan signifikan terhadap spectators satisfaction, dan spectators satisfaction berhasil memediasi secara signifikan hubungan antara event quality dan emotional terhadap future intention.

Building on the concepts of sport spectatorship, leisure involvement, serious leisure, identity, substitutability of leisure behaviour, and the leisure constraints and facilitators literature, this sequential mixed methods study examines sport spectators' behaviours and their perceptions of public health during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as changed leisure behaviour and participants' opinions regarding the health-related impacts of spectator sports. Utilizing a content analysis approach, this paper summarizes the qualitative, open-ended responses from a web-based survey administered December 2021 through March 2022. Participants' experiences of leisure barriers, leisure facilitators, health concerns and new leisure behaviours, as well as participants' overall public health perspectives of sporting events during COVID-19 are presented. Potential areas for future research are also discussed, specifically regarding changed leisure behaviour and socio-political complexities indicated among participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Satellite fans make up an important part of a sport team's market, but little is known about how long-distance relationships are developed across different cultures. In this manuscript, we utilize the Consumer Culture Theory to examine how satellite fans develop fanship toward foreign professional sport teams. Drawing from 46 interviews with Chinese and American fans of European soccer teams, we developed four archetypal pathways through which fans form relationships with their beloved teams, reflected in the labels "Detached Admirer," "Relational Networker," "Industry Analyst," and "Spiritual Follower." The findings showed both cross-cultural and intracultural differences in the way satellite fans connect to their teams. In diverse ways, satellite fans construct their desired identities based on the meaning of their fandom, influenced by a variety of social-historical parameters. Accordingly, we bring theoretical innovation to sport fan behavior research and provide managerial actions for teams targeting the satellite fan base. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject. The objectives of strict club liability for spectators’ behavior are not mentioned in the provisions of the UEFA Disciplinary Regulations. Strict liability implies the responsibility of clubs, regardless of the presence of fault for the actions of third parties – their spectators. Therefore, the question of the purpose of sanctions acquires additional actuality: a sanction cannot only have a punitive effect in the absence of the subject’s fault.The purpose of the study. The variety of sporting sanctions and the wide range of their application creates risks of excessive coercion against football clubs. It is necessary to consider the preventive and deterrent purposes of sports sanctions, without which sports liability is deprived of the sign of certainty for the subjects of sport and turns into the arbitrariness of the soccer authorities.Methodology. In an attempt to find references to sanctions targets under strict liability we analyzed the available practice of the UEFA bodies from 2013 to 2021 (a massive of several hundred decisions of the UEFA Control, Disciplinary and Ethics Commission, the UEFA Appeals Commission). Due to the dispute resolution system existing in European football our research could not be carried out without referring to the decisions of the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) for the period 2002-2020.The main results of research and the field of their application. A serious obstacle to the consistent practice of disputes about the responsibility of clubs for the behavior of spectators is the ambiguity of the terminology used and the doctrinal approaches of law enforcement officers. In decisions we can come across a mention of a preventive effect; preventive and deterrent effect; preventive and educational effect of sanctions. The study found that the current sports justice’s practice of applying strict liability to football clubs has two main problems. Firstly, the UEFA bodies have not established an understanding of who is the subject of the focus of the sanctions. In the disputes examined, two target audiences for sanctions under strict liability are named: clubs and spectators. Secondly, different disputes have emphasized different goals of sports sanctions. The combined approach has not yet been formulated. We have tried to fix these problems.Conclusions. The goals of strict liability and applied sports sanctions in the UEFA perimeter should not differ: preventive and deterrent, and only in the last – punitive. The need for an unambiguous choice of the football entity targeted by sports sanctions will be the first step to take into account the set of aims of the sports sanctions applied to clubs: preventive, deterrent and punitive. Despite decades of UEFA practice in the application of strict liability, there is still uncertainty as to how a sanction will have the expected effect on the spectators. Limiting UEFA to private prevention in determining the sanction and its size in club competitions does not fully fulfill the mission of sports justice. Even if the sanctions imposed on clubs under strict liability have not been verified by a UEFA jurisdictional body to take into account a set of objectives, CAS is entitled to carry out such verification. An additional difficulty arises due to the ambiguity of terminology (and ideology) regarding the objectives of sanctions in sports justice’s practice.

This study aimed to test the Turkish adaptation of the Stadium Atmosphere Scale (STAS) and reveal its psychometric properties. We collected data from 324 football spectators and fans, which were selected using the convenience sampling method. We carried out four different tests for Turkish adaptation and psychometric properties of the scale after performing Turkish language co-validation. The CFA analysis with varying configurations of the model revealed that the construct of the STAS fit well in both the correlated factor model and the hierarchical model and best fit the data collected from the Turkish population. Additionally, we tested measurement and structural invariance to examine if the scale was also performed for spectators participating for different purposes in the same way and determined that the relevant scale preserved its basic structure in both football spectators and fans and that the scale could be used as an appropriate measurement tool. These results demonstrated that the STAS would be used as a valid and reliable measurement tool for the population in Turkey.

Measures to combat the COVID-19 pandemic have provided a unique dataset that can be analysed to test the influence of spectators on match results. Strict measures were introduced in the Czech Republic, where more than half of the 2020--2021 season was played completely without spectators. The matches of the Czech Extraliga from the last seven seasons (a total of 2604 matches were played between the seasons of 2016--2017 and 2022--2023) were used in the analysis of the influence of spectators on results. Previously developed models from association football were used to perform the analysis. The results of the analysis show that in matches without spectators, the influence of home advantage decreased significantly.

Understanding consumers' underlying motivation(s) for attending sporting events is vital in developing strategic marketing plans. A complete understanding of individuals' motivations to attend can be essential for sport organisations with lower budgets, limited staffing, and/or saturated markets. With this in mind, this study aimed to investigate Minor League Baseball (MiLB) spectator motivations, identifying spectator typologies using motivation-based segmentation. Data were obtained from 587 MiLB spectators using a modified version of Trail and James' (2001) motivation scale for sport consumption. Confirmatory factor analysis, two-step cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis were employed for classification purposes, resulting in four segments - family focused, baseball lovers, escapers, and general entertainment seekers. This study augments and extends the existing sport marketing literature, particularly with the use of motivation-based segmentation for sport spectator typology. Both theoretical and practical implications are addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) represents a gradual change of attitude formation. The continuum in the model is divided into four stages (Awareness, Attraction, Attachment, and Allegiance), which represent the formation of attitudes and involvement levels in increasingly stronger degrees towards the sport object (Funk & James, 2001). The first aim of the research is to adapt the Sports Involvement staging tool/scale developed for sports spectators by Doyle et al. (2013) within the scope of PCM for Turkish culture. The second aim of the research is to examine the differences in resistance to change levels of sports spectators regarding their involvement profiles. A total of 239 (x̄age = 37.00±14.46) football spectators aged between 18-70 participated in the study [56 female (x̄age = 31.79±13.29) and 183 male (x̄age = 38.59±14.47)]. CFA was performed for adapting the scale. The findings of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed that the Sports Involvement Scale represented its structural validity and psychometric properties as in the original scale (Chi-square/sd = 2.43, p

This article explores spectator racism across three high-profile professional men's football codes in Australia (Australian Football League, National Rugby League and the A-League). To pursue this goal, the study conducted an online survey from April 2021 to June 2021, securing 2047 responses. Our focus in this article centres on those participants who self-identified as White to gather their insights on racism as they witnessed and understood it being expressed in the context of attending a professional men's football code match in Australia. Applying Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus to theorise why some White spectators overtly express racist language and behaviour, our findings indicated the resilience of Whiteness as a source of power and domination, with many White participants reporting they had witnessed racial bigotry in recent years. Concurrently, many demonstrated anti-racist sensibilities, expressing frustration that change has been limited, if at all. Some participants suggested racism is an individual failing rather than being subject to institutions and community norms. From that perspective, racism is viewed as a personal choice rather than a failure of society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

E-sports events play a crucial role as significant entertainment activities and platforms for emotional interaction among the public. This study seeks to delve into the processes underlying the emotional experiences of online spectators during interactive rituals within e-sports events. It employs the core concept of emotional energy within interaction ritual chains as framework for analysis. To accomplish this, we conducted one-on-one semi-structured interviews with 20 online spectators actively engaged in the League of Legends professional league. These interviews specifically targeted their emotions, feelings, evaluations, behaviors, and other relevant experiences both preceding, during, and subsequent to spectating. Our analysis revealed four distinct stages within the emotional energy change process: emotional arousal, immersion, climax, and continuity. These stages collectively culminate in the formulation of a dynamic, continuous, and cyclical emotional energy model. Notably, spectators adeptly employ various emotional regulation strategies to mitigate the impact of disruptive factors. The integration of ritual symbols, coupled with the positive feedback loop of emotional energy, serves to connect the five identified stages and establish a cohesive cyclic upward mechanism. These findings not only offer unique insights into the micro-level emotional experiences of online spectators but also hold practical implications for the effective management of e-sports events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate the correlation among event quality, host city evaluation, place attachment, destination brand equity, and visitors' attitudinal intention. Structural equation modeling was employed to test the proposed hypotheses. The data were collected through convenience sampling from 392 spectators who attended the Islamic Solidarity Games 2022, Konya. The results show that event quality positively affects host city evaluation and revisit attitude, while it negatively affects destination brand equity and place attachment. Furthermore, host city evaluation positively affects destination brand equity, place attachment and revisit attitude and has a mediating role between event quality, destination brand equity and place attachment. On the other hand, the results show that there is negative effect of place attachment and destination brand equity on revisit attitude. This research is important in terms of examining the relationship between destination brand equity, brand loyalty and event quality variables since these variables are factors that directly affect visitor experience and behavior. This study makes a theoretical contribution as it investigates different theories and variables in a different context, confirms and updates existing theories and reflects the positive and negative relationships between variables. A more detailed understanding of the relationship between event and destination can guide decision makers to develop more effective strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why do sports fans sometimes (often?) go crazy at sporting events and then afterwards proceed with their day as if nothing much happened? If something of genuine significance happened, something that warranted the emotional ups and downs the fan experienced during the game, why don’t its effects linger? These questions pose a version of the puzzle of sports fandom. Others have applied Kendall Walton’s theory of fiction to solve the puzzle, but Walton’s account of sports fandom fiction is unacceptably thin. Recent attempts by Nathan Wildman and Joseph Moore to address this thinness problem fail. We answer the thinness objection by explaining how sports fandom is a collaboratively authored fiction, constructed by fans, sponsors, players, teams, media commentators, and more. The stories of sports fandom fiction are passed to new generations of fans in a way more reminiscent of The Iliad or The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Sports fandom fiction is more like folklore, and less like a novel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines heat exposure and its impact on the thermal comfort and health of spectators within a semi-outdoor American college football stadium in the southeastern United States. Over 50 sensors were deployed during the 2016 season from late August to late November to measure temperature and humidity across various stadium locations. Significant variations in temperature, heat index, and a modified version of the physiological equivalent temperature (mPET) were found within the stadium, with some areas exceeding National Weather Service heat alert thresholds during certain games. Moreover, mean temperatures in the stadium were higher than those measured at a nearby weather station, while the mean heat index was higher in the seating areas than in other stadium locations and at the nearby weather station. Reductions in modeled wind speed resulted in significant decreases in thermal comfort and greater physical stress among spectators, particularly when the wind was calm. Heat-related illness comprised up to two-thirds of all cases treated by first aid and emergency medical services during particularly hot games. Most of these occurred in the most thermally oppressive parts of the stadium. These results highlight the need for greater monitoring of heat exposure inside stadiums, earlier implementation of heat action plans to raise awareness and educate spectators on heat mitigation strategies, and incorporation of stadium design modifications that improve circulation, increase shade, and reduce crowding.

In the present paper, I investigate the use of sympathy and the Impartial Spectator in Adam Smith’s moral philosophy. My aim is not only a critical reading of Smith’s text but also to draw a historical perspective in which the two concepts evolved right into the 21st century. First, I distinguish three modes of constructing the relationship between the individual subject and the others of the community the subject belongs to. The first option is to define the individual in terms of the community, the second is to postulate a relatively autonomous individual who makes a contract with the community. The third is to conceive of both as mutually determining within a dynamic system. Smith tries to steer between the first two, while the third is developed in contemporary evolutionary and ecological approaches. Next, I will try to show that Adam Smith’s effort to ground moral judgment and behaviour on his idea of sympathy as a kind of imagination of what others feel and think, by means of an intermediary, the Impartial Spectator, runs into a paradox or vicious circle. Next, I offer a kind of solution to the regress of the irreducible distinction between morality and ethics. Then I extrapolate the idea of the Impartial Spectator to the problem of the radical Other, or alien, as it is developed in contemporary French phenomenology. Finally, I briefly apply the idea of the alien to fields other than philosophy such as anthropology, social networking, and ecology.

In the paper "Adoption of technological innovations by sports spectators" we make a brief analysis of the importance of technology in sports and in the fans' experience, and in the last part a technology used by both athletes and fans is presented, which is revolutionizing the sports field. Just as it happens in any other field, in the case of professional sports, modern technology has produced important changes. And if we think about everyday life, instead of going up the stairs, you use the elevator, instead of writing on paper, you use your computer or laptop at the office, the phone, you pay with a card when you go to the table. Technology becomes part of our lives once we come into contact with it, so it is normal to see the world of professional sports very interested in new technologies. We already see many of these technologies in tennis, where the ball can be tracked with amazing precision, in football, where we have the replay and detailed analysis of any movement made by the players on the field. Others are there, but not so well known. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PURPOSE This study explores the factors influencing eco-friendly behavioral intentions during sports spectating and infers the causal structure linking each variable to eco-friendly behavioral intentions. METHODS A total of 364 sports fans participated in the survey that collected data on Knowledge of Climate Change (KCC), Awareness of Climate Change (ACC), Attitude of Climate Change (ATT), Subjective Norm of Climate Change (SN), Perceived Behavior Control of Climate Change (PBC), and Behavioral intention to Reduce Single-Use Plastic (INT) during sports spectating. The validity of the measurement was examined through confirmatory factor analysis. Based on the validated data, latent variables’ average scores were reconstructed as input variables for the Bayesian Network, along with demographic characteristics. RESULTS The results of Bayesian network learning indicated that ACC, ATT, SN, and PBC variables directly influence INT. ACC affects ATT and SN, while ACC is influenced by KCC and sex. Conversely, PBC influenced INT but showed no association with the other input variables. SN was found to have the greatest impact on INT during sports spectating, while the influence of PBC was relatively low. CONCLUSIONS The causal structure inferred in the current study using Bayesian network learning provides insights into the previously underexplored relationship structure explaining eco-friendly behavioral intentions of sports fans in the field of sports science. The findings of this study can serve as empirical evidence for sports-related organizations to develop strategies and decision-making processes to promote sustainable sports spectatorship.

This study was purposed to develop and validate a questionnaire to measure the perceived value of sport spectators. Reviewing the theoretical background of perceived value in the marketing management and semi-structured qualitative interviews were two deemed methods used to identify components and items of the questionnaire. The results have demonstrated six main factors including: product, service, brand, personal, psychological and social benefits which affect the perceived benefits of spectators. Also, they have revealed other five main factors including financial, time, physical, psychological and social costs affecting the perceived costs of the spectators. Therefore, sport managers are advised to improve factors associated with the stadium, such as effective management, spectator safety, facilities and welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of the female spectators at the beginning of the seventeenth century in England must be envisaged within the particular context of a variety of theatrical situations. The place of the spectators was different according to the venue, from a social as well as from a spatial point of view. This article is devoted to Samuel Daniel’s masque, The Vision of the Twelve Goddesses (1604), the first real masque of the Jacobean period with women from the court participating as silent actors. Masques are generally characterized by a great permeability between the stage and the audience. In The Vision of the Twelve Goddesses, Daniel laid the stress on the question of the gaze and curiosity. He seemed to be directing the female spectators’ gaze by mediating it through an optical instrument (the “prospective”), which allows them to see better, according to Daniel’s interpretation of his masque. This article examines the relation between the female actor and the female spectator. Did Samuel Daniel give a privileged place to female spectators in his masque, on stage and off stage?

The purpose of this study was to investigate the levels of freedom perceived by FIFA 2022 World Cup spectators during their free time. This quantitative study utilized the cross-sectional model. The working group was comprised of 408 individuals, including 229 men and 179 women, who traveled from Turkey to Qatar in order to observe the FIFA 2022 World Cup. The "Perceived Freedom in Leisure Scale" comprised of two sub dimensions and 17 items was used as a measuring instrument. The obtained data were subjected to Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality tests, and non-parametric Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H tests were conducted because the data did not satisfy normality conditions. The obtained results were evaluated at a significance level of 0.05. Significant differences emerged in the variable perceived leisure freedom in knowledge and skills sub dimensions according to gender and participation in social activities. There was a significant difference in the sub dimension of excitement and fun based on the age variable.

Violence among spectators in sports is a global phenomenon posing hazards for players, match officials, and other participants. Despite its widespread prevalence, scant criminological research has investigated the matter. To fill this void, this study examines the predictive efficacy of key theoretical constructs derived from Situational Action Theory on aggressive behaviour among a sample of 384 soccer spectators in Iran. Results reveal that crime propensity, criminogenic exposure, action alternatives, and choice have direct effects on spectator engagement in violent behaviour. Furthermore, results demonstrate that crime propensity and criminogenic exposure (propensity*exposure) and action alternatives and choice (action alternatives*choice) interact to increase violence among sport spectators in a manner consistent with the theory. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explains how Netflix has transformed the ways in which we interact with media in the contemporary milieu. I argue that Netflix works through a process of planned differentiation, designing unique customization experiences to create a new type of media user that participates in its global and regional release and production strategies. This leads me into a discussion of how the Netflix interface manages the spectators' experience through a series of connected features. Thus, I detail Netflix' personalization mechanisms, proposing that, ultimately, its users 'pay to buy themselves', or the version of themselves its interface offers back to users upon systematically gathering data on their habits. Finally, I remark that the key characteristics of the current streaming service/spectator relationship are deceptive limitlessness, customization, the automation of content flow and ubiquity, weaving a form of audiovisual engagement that has partially and, at times completely, conquered our everyday. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]