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The authors of this position paper argue that there is currently very little evidence-based practice in relation to learners with severe learning disabilities (SLD) and profound and multiple learning disabilities (PMLD), and that which there is, has often been badly used and/or abused. More specifically, we argue that relevant educational research undertaken so far has a strong tendency towards: (1) conflating the need for common strategies to be universally used in teaching, with the 'need' for a common curriculum; (2) quoting research that applies to children with certain types of SEND as though it applies to all children with SEND; (3) assuming there is a homogeneity of learning disability among people with the same condition (for example Down Syndrome, autism) and (4) encouraging assumptions that any academic progress, no matter how small the gain, is axiomatically superior in value for all pupils. The authors conclude that there is need for a new look at 'evidence-based practice' for these populations.

The Equals Formal Curriculum English Scheme of Work has been designed for that very small percentage of the school population, perhaps as low as one or two per cent, who have global learning difficulties (GLD) to such a degree that they are consistently working at levels significantly below their age-related peers for all of their academic lives. The term GLD includes all those in England currently ascribed as having severe learning difficulties (SLD) and many if not most, currently ascribed as having moderate learning difficulties (MLD). Evidence of the difficulties faced by such pupils will become increasingly obvious beyond Year 1 at age 6, because the difficulties are global rather than specific. That is, they are likely to affect all learning, but will be particularly apparent in numeracy and literacy. This paper, the first of two, seeks to clarify why reading and writing are so extraordinarily difficult for this population and posits that the answers lie in challenging perceived wisdoms within the education system's predilections towards (i) regarding phonics as the only solution to reading difficulties (ii) persisting over time (and in the face of evidence to the contrary) with the view that children, young people and adults with GLD can make sufficient progress within phonics teaching and (iii) the use of differentiation of a standardised national curriculum model as being a sufficient answer to global learning difficulties. Clearly the main language used in England is English, but the principles and ideas outlined in this paper should apply in any language which uses a phonic structure when teaching language.

Fusarium crown rot (FCR), caused by the fungal pathogen Fusarium pseudograminearum (Fp), is a major constraint to cereal production worldwide. The pathogen restricts the movement of solutes within the plant due to mycelial colonisation of vascular tissue. Yield loss and quality downgrades are exacerbated by this disease under water stress conditions. Plant root systems are adaptive and can alter their architecture to optimise production in response to changes in environment and plant health. This plasticity of root systems typically favours resource acquisition of primarily water and nutrients. This study examined the impact of FCR on the root system architecture of multiple commercial bread and durum wheat varieties. Root system growth was recorded in-crop in large transparent rhizoboxes allowing visualization of root architecture over time. Furthermore, electrical resistivity tomography was used to quantify spatial root activity vertically down the soil profile. Results demonstrated a significant reduction in the total root length and network area with the inoculation of FCR. Electrical resistivity measurements indicated that the spatial pattern of water use for each cultivar was influenced differently from infection with FCR over the growing season. Specifically temporal water use can be correlated with FCR tolerance of the varieties marking this investigation the first to link root architecture and water use as tolerance mechanisms to FCR infection. This research has implications for more targeted selection of FCR tolerance characteristics in breeding programs along with improved specific varietal management in-crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reserve starch, the main component of durum wheat semolina, is constituted of two glucan homopolymers (amylose and amylopectin) that differ in their chemical structure. Amylose is mainly a linear structure formed of α-1,4-linked glucose units, with a lower polymerization degree, whereas amylopectin is a highly branched structure of α-1,4-chains linked by α-1,6-bonds. Variation of the amylose/amylopectin ratio has a profound effect on the starch properties which may impact the wheat technological and nutritional characteristics and their possible use in the food and non-food sector. In this work a set of genotypes, with a range of amylose from 14.9 to 57.8%, derived from the durum wheat cv. Svevo was characterised at biochemical and rheological level and used to produce pasta to better understand the role of amylose content in a common genetic background. A negative correlation was observed between amylose content and semolina swelling power, starch peak viscosity, and pasta stickiness. A worsening of the firmness was observed in the low amylose pasta compared to the control (cv. Svevo), whereas no difference was highlighted in the high amylose samples. The resistant starch was higher in the high amylose (HA) pasta compared to the control and low amylose (LA) pasta. Noteworthy, the extent of starch digestion was reduced in the HA pasta while the LA genotypes offered a higher starch digestion, suggesting other possible applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: While there are a few studies examining the impact of isolated starch A and B granule preparations on cereal end product quality, there is limited information about the effect of genotypic variation in B granule content in starch on pasta technological properties and pasta in vitro starch digestion. Crosses were made between a durum variety Yallaroi and a low and high B‐granule dicoccoides accession and the resulting population evaluated in field trials for starch B‐granule content (S‐BG) and selections made for more detailed analysis. Findings: Genotypes were grouped based on semolina B granule contents of 24.5%−26.7%, 31.7%−37.1%, and 43.9%−45.1% for analysis purposes. Preliminary field data indicated three "43.9−45.1%" B‐granule genotypes had lower grain and test weight and one of these, 156,224*2, a very high semolina Buhler mill yield. Pasta made from the genotypes produced acceptable pasta but there was no association between S‐BG and pasta properties. To overcome protein composition differences between genotypes, starch was isolated and reconstituted flours and pasta prepared. Starch from the same "43.9−45.1%" group all showed RVA profiles with lower final viscosities and setback and displayed higher gelatinization onset and peak temperatures than the "24.5−26.7%" group. Pasta made from reconstituted flours showed similar pasta quality and in vitro starch digestion properties. Conclusions: The data suggests no relationship between percentage of B‐granules and both pasta quality and starch digestion for the range and populations studied (S‐BG, 22%−44%). Significance and Novelty: This information provides new insights into the role varying S‐BG content in pasta cooking properties, texture and nutritional characteristics and could provide some direction to breeders to consider breeding for very low or very high B‐granule content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Australia, adoption of reduced tillage and stubble retention cropping systems by growers to conserve soil moisture has seen an increase in the prevalence of the disease Fusarium crown rot (FCR) caused by the stubble-borne fungal pathogen Fusarium pseudograminearum. Durum wheat is particularly susceptible to FCR, exhibiting significant yield and quality losses in the presence of infection. Increasing rates of nitrogen (N) application at sowing exacerbates FCR. However, to achieve the desired grain protein and quality suited to pasta manufacturing, N application is necessary, and this creates a dilemma for growers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of FCR infection in the presence of different N fertiliser application rates in durum wheat varieties on the yield and technological quality. Two durum varieties were evaluated at the same location over two seasons (2020 and 2021). These seasons were characterised by being wetter than normal and showed different responses to FCR and N application. Three rates of FCR inoculation and five rates of N fertilizer were applied (varying according to season) at sowing. In general, the 2021 season showed better responses to applied N regarding the yield and technological properties, with no impact from FCR. The FCR inoculation, while resulting in significant infections in 2020 (15–36-fold increase) and in 2021 (~45-fold increase), had no impacts on the yield or grain quality in 2021, while in 2020, the yield was reduced (24.9%), with variable effects on the technological properties. The 2021 season showed much more responses to applied N (grain protein increased by ~24%). Jandaroi was found to maintain its kernel vitreosity at all protein levels (mean of 88.5%), obtaining the premium grade, while DBA Lillaroi did not (mean vitreosity of 76.6%) and could be downgraded if N application was insufficient. However, higher N application rates needed to achieve more than 12% protein lead to a reduction in dough strength, with Jandaroi maintaining its dough strength much better (2.7% reduction in the gluten index) than DBA Lillaroi (18.2% reduction in the gluten index). This was related to the lower glutenin/gliadin (Gli/Glu) ratio in response to applied N at sowing in Jandaroi, which helped retain kernels with a high vitreousness. This suggests genetics plays an important role in a genotype's response to N fertilisation and should be considered when selecting a genotype where higher premium grades are desirable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cereal disease Fusarium crown rot (FCR), caused by the fungal pathogen Fusarium pseudograminearum (Fp), is a major constraint to cereal production worldwide. Nitrogen (N) fertilizer is estimated to be approximately 30% of the input costs for grain growers in Australia and is the primary driver of yield and grain protein levels. When targeting high yield and protein, generous nitrogen fertilizer applications are thought to result in large biomass production, which exacerbates FCR severity, reducing grain yield and quality. This research was undertaken to investigate the effect of temporal N availability in high-protein bread and durum wheat varieties on FCR severity. Laboratory and controlled environment experiments assessed the relationship between FCR and N at a mechanistic and plant level. An in vitro study demonstrated an increase in Fp mycelial growth under increased N availability, especially when N was supplied as urea compared with ammonium nitrate. Similarly, under controlled environmental conditions, increased soil N availability promoted FCR severity within infected plants. Stem N transfer efficiency was significantly decreased under FCR infection in both bread and durum wheat varieties by 4.5% and 10.2%, respectively. This new research demonstrates that FCR not only decreases yield and grain quality but appears to have previously unrecognised detrimental impacts on nitrogen-use efficiency in wheat. This indicates that the current impact of losses from FCR may also decrease N-use inefficiencies, as well as yield and quality penalties. An improved understanding of the interactions and restrictions of FCR infection may allow growers to better manage the disease through manipulation of the soil's temporal N availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Durum wheat breeding commenced in Australia in the 1930s by the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI), Australia. Dural was developed in 1956 from a cross between North African landraces. Since then, another 20 varieties have been released in the following six decades by NSW DPI and the University of Adelaide. These were evaluated for agronomic and detailed quality traits including pasta‐making quality over three seasons. This study aimed to quantify progress achieved in Australian durum breeding for yield, quality, and some agronomic traits since the release of Dural. Findings: A demonstrated grain yield improvement at the rate of 27.8 kg ha−1 year−1 up to 2017 has been achieved when generally maintaining low screenings and high thousand grain weight. The recent varieties are medium early in their maturity relative to Dural and possess improved lodging tolerance which has resulted in better adaptation to seasonal conditions under dryland cultivation, and also, adaptation to high input irrigated cropping. Breeding has also resulted in higher technological quality, specifically, improved semolina yellow color, higher dough strength, improved pasta brightness and yellowness but with slightly declining grain protein content. Strong genetic gain was observed in semolina color traits, namely, reduction in a* and increase in b*. Conclusion: The progress in Australian durum breeding over the last six decades compares well to the progress achieved in other countries for yield, agronomic, and quality traits. The improvements in yield and quality are expected to continue with future developments focussing on adaptation to meet the changing climate and improving tolerance to a major disease, crown rot, while maintaining high technological quality. Significance and Novelty: This is the first study quantifying the progress made in Australian durum breeding efforts and the first study that includes pasta‐making quality traits from an historical breeding perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Durum semolina spaghetti is known to have a low-moderate glycaemic index but the impact of various processing variables during the manufacture and cooking of pasta does affect pasta structure and potentially could alter starch digestion. In this study, several process variables were investigated to see if they can impact the in vitro starch digestion in spaghetti while also monitoring the pasta's technological quality. Cooking time had a large impact on pasta starch digestion and reducing cooking from fully cooked to al dente and using pasta of very high protein content (17%), reduced starch digestion extent. The semolina particle size distribution used to prepare pasta impacted pasta quality and starch digestion to a small extent indicating a finer semolina particle size (<180 µm) may promote a more compact structure and help to reduce starch digestion. The addition of a structural enzyme, Transglutaminase in the pasta formulae improved overcooking tolerance in low protein pasta comparable to high protein pasta with no other significant effects and had no effect on starch digestion over a wide protein range (8.6–17%). While cold storage of cooked pasta was expected to increase retrograded starch, the increase in resistant starch was minor (37%) with no consequent improvement in the extent of starch digestion. Varying three extrusion parameters (die temperature, die pressure, extrusion speed) impacted pasta technological quality but not the extent of starch digestion. Results suggest the potential to subtly manipulate the starch digestion of pasta through some processing procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cereal disease Fusarium crown rot (FCR), caused by the fungal pathogen Fusarium pseudograminearum, is a worldwide major constraint to winter cereal production but especially in Australia's northern grain's region (NGR) of NSW and Queensland. Conventionally, FCR induced yield penalties are associated with semi-arid water-limited conditions during flowering and grain-filling. In this study, yield penalties associated with FCR infection were found to be significant under both adequate and above average water conditions which has implication for global wheat production in more favorable environments. This research was conducted to understand the impact of FCR on water availability, yield and grain quality in high protein bread and durum wheat varieties in controlled environment and replicated field experiments across three locations in the NGR over a two-year period. Under controlled conditions, FCR infection significantly decreased water use by 7.5% with an associated yield reduction of 9.5% irrespective of water treatment. Above average rainfall was experienced across all field experimental sites in both 2020 and 2021 growing seasons. The field studies demonstrated a decrease in water use of upwards of 23% at some sites and significant yield penalties across all cultivars of up to 18.4% in natural rainfed scenarios to still 13.2% with further supplementary irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blackpoint (BPt) is a brown or black discoloration at the germ end of the grain and occurs in most locations where durum wheat [Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum (Desf.) Husn.] is grown throughout the world. Its presence causes downgrading at market due to the undesirable black specks in semolina and derived pasta. Durum wheat appears to show different genetic susceptibilities to developing BPt; however, there are no extensive studies on this. This study aimed to survey the range of BPt sensitivity mainly in T. turgidum ssp. durum and to identify genotypes with low levels for future h feeding efforts. In this study field methods were developed to reliably induce BPt symptoms in durum wheat. Using this approach, a wide range of durum wheat genotypes were evaluated for their BPt sensitivity status in comparison to selected Australian durum wheat cultivars and breeding lines. Only material giving consistently low BPt score (i.e., tolerant, defined as the mean BPt percentage being _ doi: 10.2135/cropsci2009.08.0439

Although durum wheat (Triticum durum L. ssp. durum Desf.) has traditionally been used to make a range of food products, its use has been restricted due to the absence of the D-genome glutenin proteins, the relatively low variability in starch composition, and its very hard grain texture. This review focuses on the manipulation of the starch and protein composition and modification of the hardness of durum wheat in order to improve its technological and nutritional value and expand its utilization for application to a wider number of end products. Starch is composed of amylopectin and amylose in a 3:1 ratio, and their manipulation has been explored for achieving starch with modified composition. In particular, silencing of the genes involved in amylose and amylopectin synthesis has made it possible to isolate durum wheat lines with amylose content varying from 2–3% up to 75%. This has created opportunities for new products with different properties and enhanced nutritional value. Durum-made bread has generally inferior quality to bread made from common wheat. Attempts to introduce the Glu-D1 subunits 1Dx5 + 1Dy10 and 1Dx2 + 1Dy12 produced stronger dough, but the former produced excessively strong, inelastic doughs, and loaf volume was either inferior or not affected. In contrast, the 1Dx2 + 1Dy12 sometimes improved bread loaf volume (LV) depending on the glutenin subunit background of the genotype receiving these genes. Further breeding and selection are needed to improve the dough extensibility to allow higher LV and better texture. The versatility of durum wheat has been greatly expanded with the creation of soft-textured durum via non-GMO introgression means. This soft durum mills like soft hexaploid wheat and has similar baking properties. The pasta quality is also not diminished by the soft-textured kernels. The Glu-D1 locus containing the subunits 1Dx2 + 1Dy12 has also been introgressed to create higher quality soft durum bread. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Other durum wheat products are also considered, such as couscous, a product prepared from durum wheat semolina that agglomerates upon the addition of water and undergoes physical and thermal treatment. Durum wheat is widely used in various products, including long and short dried pasta, fresh and sheeted pasta, couscous, bulgur and baked bread. Understanding the relationship between the processing variables and pasta quality is essential in "redesigning" the process when alternative raw materials (i.e., ingredients other than durum wheat semolina) are used [[8]]. [Extracted from the article]

Summary: Spaghetti commonly made with durum wheat, typically lacks essential amino acids and with low fibre. Legumes offer potential to improve these properties and lupin is a good choice because it is cheaper with fewer antinutritional compounds than other legumes. Spaghetti was prepared with 0%, 5%, 17% and 30% lupin protein isolate (LPI) using both single‐screw (SSEP) and twin‐screw extrusion (TSEP). LPI increased protein up to 129%, reduced cooking time, water absorption and cooked firmness while stickiness and cooking loss were increased, especially using TSEP. LPI made the dried pasta more red and yellow and decreased brightness. The percentage of starch digested under in vitro conditions was reduced using 17%LPI with TSEP and 30%LPI with SSEP compared vs. control. Microscopy revealed changes in structure by LPI which may explain impacts on technological properties and digestion. Inclusion of LPI in pasta represents a potential approach for a low‐cost improvement of nutritional value of spaghetti and potentially reducing its starch digestibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Wheat bran is commonly used in pasta products and is an excellent source of phytochemicals, but it creates various processing and consumer acceptability issues. Proteins extracted from bran (WBPC) have potential to improve the protein content and protein quality of pasta, but their contribution to the phytochemical content of pasta is unknown. Findings: In this study, WBPC was added to a spaghetti formulae at 0, 1%, 5%, 10%, and 20% (w/w). The dried uncooked spaghetti were characterized for quali‐quantitative composition of phytosterols and phenolic acids. Also, both the uncooked and cooked samples were evaluated for total soluble phenolics (TSP) and antioxidant activity (AO). Results showed that pasta with 20%WBPC increased total phytosterol content (~55%), and phenolic acids content (~57%), with ferulic acid being the main component. Cooked spaghetti had reduced TSP and AO compared to the uncooked. However, cooked 20%WBPC spaghetti had significantly higher contents of both TSP (~37%) and AO (~93%) compared to 100% durum semolina spaghetti. The in vitro starch digestion of pasta was not affected by WBPC at these levels. Conclusion: Spaghetti enriched with WBPC has improved phytochemical content without negative changes on pasta in vitro starch digestion. Significance and novelty: WBPC is a suitable ingredient to enhance the phytochemical content of regular spaghetti with potential health benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Durum breeders are interested in screening early‐generation lines for quality traits to eliminate low‐quality lines as soon as possible. However, this requires minimal sample usage and simple and discriminating tests. Due to insufficient quantities of sample available in the early stages of breeding process, a reliable and comprehensive evaluation of wheat functionality is needed. Moreover, this problem is further aggravated by the need to assess the quality of huge number of lines. This study describes a procedure to evaluate durum grain and wholemeal for key quality traits using rapid methods that have minimal sample requirements. Findings: In this study, three new methods were developed to allow screening from limited amounts of grain (120 g). A new near‐infrared calibration to measure wet gluten from grain, an accurate prediction of semolina yellowness using wholemeal and a milling protocol using a Quadrumat Junior mill to predict Buhler semolina yield. Data provided by these new methods and other data proposed can be used to remove underperforming lines to reduce sample numbers for the next stage of yield trials and more detailed and costly testing for quality. Conclusions: To improve the efficiency of selecting for quality in a durum breeding program where sample size is limited, new methods are described and validated on breeder's populations for quickly assessing wet gluten, yellowness, and milling potential. Significance and novelty: A protocol to rapidly evaluate lines for key grain characteristics, wet gluten, yellowness, and milling potential to supplement NIR and small‐scale dough tests is described from 120 g of grain which can be achieved in less than 1 hr/sample. This should assist durum breeders to efficiently cull lines showing inferior quality to check varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Plant industrial by‐products are relatively low cost and rich in organic material. Although these by‐products are a good source of various nutritional compounds, they represent the main disposal problem for the food industry. Wheat bran, one of the main by‐products of the wheat milling industry, contains more than 15% high‐quality proteins. However, these proteins are present in a form which is poorly digested as they are enclosed within a matrix of cell wall polysaccharides. About 15.5 million tonnes of usable protein could be recovered from bran if a commercial extraction process can be made viable. The purpose of this work was to extract protein from durum wheat bran using an alkaline acid method to study its nutritional and functional properties with the goal of using it as a fortifying material in cereal‐based foods such as pasta and bread. Findings: Durum wheat bran protein concentrate (WBPC) was prepared by using an alkaline extraction method (pH 9.5 for two hours) followed by isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.2). Chemical, nutritional, and functional properties of WBPC were obtained. WBPC had a protein content of ~61% (protein yield 20.5%–24.8%), containing also lipids, fiber, and small quantities of starch. WBPC was enriched in phytosterols compared to wheat bran (11.59 vs. 5.14 mg/g) with β‐sitosterol the predominant (4.37 mg/g). WBPC was also enriched in all the amino acids compared to bran, especially lysine and threonine. WBPC retained some phenolic acids, but at an eightfold lower quantity than in bran and retained about half the antioxidant activity (DPPH) of bran. WBPC showed excellent functional properties in terms of high solubility over a wide range in pH and good water and fat absorption capacity. The main protein components were albumin and globulin proteins. Conclusion: The extraction method used produced a protein concentrate in reasonable yield with high protein content enriched in essential amino acids and phytosterols compared to wheat bran with good functional properties and phenolic acids and antioxidant potential. Significance and novelty: The nutritional and functional properties of WBPC make it a promising ingredient for various food products such as cereal and baked foods, processed meat, and beverages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Durum wheat is mainly used for the production of pasta, but a significant amount is also used for bread and other products worldwide. However, leavened bread made from durum wheat flour or as blends results in bread with lower loaf volume compared to bread made from hexaploid wheat probably due to poor dough strength and/or extensibility. Durum wheat lacks the glutenin subunits important in bread making, in particular the Glu‐D1 subunit 5 + 10. Efforts are being made by researchers to introduce high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW‐GS), specifically 1, 2*, 17 + 18, 2 + 12, and 5 + 10 and combinations into durum wheat to improve baking quality. Typically, this work has not evaluated pasta‐making quality and dual purpose durum wheat is desirable. This work reports the effects of the addition of HMW‐GS 2 + 12 and 5 + 10 in various durum wheat backgrounds on dough‐ and pasta‐making quality. Findings: Durum wheats, Svevo, Svevo partial waxy (null 4A, null 7A, low amylose ~14%), and Lira biotypes 42/45 differing in their LMW‐GS as type 1, weak dough, and type 2, strong dough, respectively, were compared with lines having the Glu‐D1 subunit pair 2 + 12 or 5 + 10. For Svevo, the Glu‐B17 + 8 subunits were removed. The absence of 7 + 8 in Svevo reduced the over strong dough strengthening effect, especially from 5 + 10 but also 2 + 12 found previously when 7 + 8 is present. The weak gluten Lira42 genotype benefited from the improved dough strength from 2 + 12/5 + 10, and both Lira biotypes showed much larger effects on dough strength from the Glu‐D1 pairs than with Svevo, a better quality variety. The impacts on pasta were variable depending on the genotype. For Lira42, the presence of 2 + 12 lowered stickiness and cooking loss while stickiness was only reduced in Lira45 with 5 + 10. For Svevo (without 7 + 8), there was little to no impact on pasta quality from the presence of either 2 + 12 or 5 + 10. The very low amylose Svevo (SvLA) pasta quality was improved greatly by 5 + 10 improving firmness and reducing stickiness and cooking loss although still softer than Svevo. Conclusions: Manipulation of the glutenin composition of durum wheat by introduction of Glu‐D1subunits 2 + 12 or 5 + 10 in various durum backgrounds had different effects. Generally, dough strength was improved more so in the weaker dough strength genotypes with these subunits and removing Glu‐B17 + 8 from Svevo provided a more balanced dough strength. Pasta firmness in Svevo and Lira with these subunits was not affected, and there were minimal changes in other pasta properties except an improvement in pasta stickiness in Lira. In the variable amylose Svevo genotypes, the 5 + 10 subunit pair improved pasta firmness of the overly soft low amylose waxy pasta and reduced stickiness. Significance and novelty: Manipulation of the glutenin subunit composition of durum wheat by introduction of Glu‐D1 subunits affected dough properties, improving dough strength in genotypes with weak gluten. This study found minor impacts on pasta quality allowing the flexibility to develop durum with a better balance of glutenin subunits more suited to bread making without adversely affecting pasta‐making quality and acceptability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Durum wheat is used to make leavened bread; however, durum bread has inferior loaf volume, structure, and texture compared to bread made from common wheat. One approach to overcome this is to transfer key storage protein genes present at the Glu‐D1 locus from bread wheat into durum. Durum wheat Svevo missing Glu‐B1subunits 7 + 8 and Lira biotypes with low molecular weight glutenin subunits types 1 and 2 were evaluated for their breadmaking potential with and without high molecular weight glutenin subunits 2 + 12 or 5 + 10. Findings: Bread made from blends of durum and a commercial baker's flour (10%, 25%, 50% w/w) assessed over two seasons in 10 different genotypes showed that as more durum was included in the mixture, loaf volume and texture score declined. Incorporation of the 2 + 12 subunit pair in the genotypes Lira42 and Lira45 improved bread quality but not in Svevo, whereas including 5 + 10 improved bread quality of Lira42 had no effect on Lira45 but reduced quality of Svevo. Low amylose Svevo had similar loaf quality to Svevo while adding 5 + 10 had minimal impact except at 50% with a small improvement in loaf quality. Bread stored up to 7 days became firmer partly due to increased starch retrogradation, and loaves were similar to bread made from baker's flour. Low amylose Svevo kept the loaf fresher but only up to 3 days of storage. Subunit pair 5 + 10 made the loaf firmer after 7 days compared to control. Conclusions: Addition of the 2 + 12 or 5 + 10 benefited the weaker type gluten as found in Lira 42 (LMW‐1, HMW 20) but not with stronger dough in Svevo even in the absence of HMW 7 + 8. It appears that while Glu‐D1 subunits are critical for good breadmaking in hexaploid wheat, they appear to have limited value in improving loaf volume and structure in durum bread. Significance and novelty: Some improvements in bread quality can be obtained by introducing genes coding for Glu‐D1subunits 2 + 12 and 5 + 10 in durum wheat depending on the genotype, especially weak dough types, and the results presented comprise the first report of such effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Durum breeders are interested in being able to remove weak gluten genotypes from their crossing populations. Although numerous tests exist to measure gluten strength, methods that can be used in early generations, use minimal sample with little processing and have good discrimination are lacking. The purpose of this work was to evaluate several small‐scale methods to predict gluten strength in durum wheat with emphasis on the gluten aggregation behavior measured using a GlutoPeak device. Findings: Using as little as 9 g of wholemeal (or semolina), a reproducible GlutoPeak aggregation curve is developed at the end of 5 min. Wholemeal gave higher precision than semolina and is more convenient to prepare when screening breeders’ material. The GlutoPeak Area and Peak Mixing Time (PMT) are good predictors of mixograph and gluten index (GI), which are traditional measures of gluten strength. Good correlations between these parameters were obtained using a diverse set of 145 durum genotypes. GlutoPeak Area gave the best prediction of GI from wholemeal samples allowing a breeder to remove weak‐moderate GI samples from a population using as little as 9 g of wholemeal. The GlutoPeak test showed higher correlations with mixograph and GI than the small‐scale biochemical methods, was easier to perform and uses no chemicals. However, GlutoPeak is not suitable when only mg quantities of sample are available. Conclusions: The utility of the GlutoPeak device has been further validated in this work for screening durum wheat lines for gluten strength. Wholemeal is a suitable sample (9 g minimum) and provides good precision and reproducibility with a short analysis time of 5 min and requires minimal operator skill. It is suited to screening breeders’ populations for gluten strength and is preferred over SIG, HPLC determination of UPP and IP% determination using a turbidity assay. Significance and novelty: The GlutoPeak can be used to effectively screen out low‐intermediate gluten strength in a durum wheat breeders’ population using 9 g of wholemeal with a 5 min run time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Heat stress is a major limiting factor to wheat yield that also impacts on grain quality and its incidence is likely to increase. Thirtyseven durum wheats were grown in irrigated replicated field trials over two seasons in Australia, normal sown (NS) or a 2-month late sown (LS). Agronomic and technological quality traits were examined. Findings: Later sowing exposed the crop to more days at temperatures of 30°C and above indicating more heat stress while the irrigation ensured no drought stress. Relative to NS, LS reduced yield, grain weight, test weight, and milling yield but grain vitreousness and hardness either increased or decreased depending on the trial. However, LS had positive effects on increasing protein content, dough quality indicators, and increased the proportion of high molecular weight gluten polymer. LS also enhanced pasta end-use traits, increasing pasta yellowness and firmness and decreasing cooking loss. Genotypes that showed relatively stable yield and grain characteristics under LS were identified (Caparoi, Jandaroi, Kalka, Kronos, Saintly and WID802). Conclusions: These findings suggest that the heat stress experienced enhanced dough and pasta quality, despite having a negative impact on yield and physical grain characteristics. Genotypes were identified that represent potential sources of heat tolerance that could be useful in breeding to help limit the undesirable effects of heat stress on durum production. Significance and novelty: Late sowing of wheat is a good strategy to obtain exposure to heat stress in the Australian environment and can be used to select genotypes with better yield and quality stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: Consumption of whole grain cereal products, which are rich in phenolic acids, is associated with lower risk of degenerative diseases. Phenolics in plants are associated with abiotic stress adaptation due to their antioxidant activities. Free, bound, and total phenolics in the wholemeal flour of 50 durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. ssp. durum) genotypes were examined, in addition to the water stress tolerance capacity of selected genotypes. Findings: This study revealed significant variation, with wholemeal flour from "Purple Grain" having the highest total phenolic content (391.0 mg gallic acid equivalent per 100 g of dry weight [GAE/100 g DW]). Under water-deficit stress, the stress-tolerant genotype Tamaroi had higher total phenolic content in the leaf (2880.3 mg GAE/100 g DW) compared to stress-sensitive genotypes EGA Bellaroi and Tjilkuri (2292.6 and 2450.1 mg GAE/100 g DW, respectively). In the mature grains, stress-tolerant genotypes Tamaroi and Yawa had significantly higher total phenolic content under stress compared to the control, while no significant change was found in the stress-sensitive genotypes EGA Bellaroi and Tjilkuri. Conclusions: Results suggest that phenolic content could be associated with water-deficit stress tolerance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The roles that the compact structure and proteins in pasta play in retarding evolution of starch molecular structure during in vitro digestion are explored, using four types of cooked samples: whole pasta, pasta powder, semolina (with proteins) and extracted starch without proteins. These were subjected to in vitro digestion with porcine α-amylase, collecting samples at different times and characterizing the weight distribution of branched starch molecules using size-exclusion chromatography. Measurement of α-amylase activity showed that a protein (or proteins) from semolina or pasta powder interacted with α-amylase, causing reduced enzymatic activity and retarding digestion of branched starch molecules with hydrodynamic radius ( R h ) < 100 nm; this protein(s) was susceptible to proteolysis. Thus the compact structure of pasta protects the starch and proteins in the interior of the whole pasta, reducing the enzymatic degradation of starch molecules, especially for molecules with R h > 100 nm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A rapid shear-based test using a GlutoPeak instrument was compared with tests commonly used by durum wheat breeders to assess the potential of this instrument to discriminate between samples. Thirty-two durum wheat semolina samples were analyzed by mixograph, SDS sedimentation (SDSS), gluten index (GI), and GlutoPeak testing. A subset was also tested for pasta quality. GlutoPeak peak maximum time (PMT) was the best indicator of gluten strength and correlated well with the other tests except SDSS. Samples with higher levels of SDS-unextractable glutenin (insoluble protein [IP]) had stronger dough and longer PMT, but the GlutoPeak test only correlated with pasta stickiness using a smaller set of samples. The range in mixogram profiles encountered in breeding material was related to the IP content, and the pasta made from the different types was of similar quality, differing more because of protein content rather than mixogram type. The GlutoPeak test is faster than GI and uses less sample, requires little technical skill, and is suitable for evaluating large numbers of breeder’s lines. The GlutoPeak test is best suited to discriminating weak from strong dough samples and allows for testing with small samples, thus facilitating quality evaluations at early stages of a breeding program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is no information on the effect of sulfuryl fluoride (SF) on durum wheat technological properties and products made from fumigated durum wheat. Durum wheat and semolina were exposed to a range of SF applications under conditions that might be typically encountered in bulk storage facilities used in many countries. SF greatly reduced the germination percentage of fumigated durum wheat, with increasing impact under higher SF concentration, grain moisture content, and fumigation temperature. SF greatly reduced seed germination percentage, impacting more the higher the SF concentration. SF had little to no effect on grain test weight, 1,000-grain weight, hardness, protein content, semolina ash content, and mixograph properties. At the highest SF concentration (31.25 mg/L for 48 h) there was a tendency for pasta cooking loss to be increased but still acceptable, and other pasta properties were largely unaffected. Fumigation with SF did not have any impact on the baking properties of a wholemeal durum flour-commercial flour mix. Therefore, SF is not recommended if the grains are to be used as seeds for agricultural production, but for the production of semolina, pasta, and bread, SF used under typical fumigation conditions has little to no impact on technological properties of durum wheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predictions about milling, dough making, and baking properties can be made by measuring properties of the wheat grain with different small- and medium-scale equipment. In this study, rheological hardness index (RHI) was shown to separate hexaploid wheats and durums into dearly distinct hardness classes. Earlier work demonstrated the utility of RHI to give new insight about the classification of wheat types, and in this study further use of the rheological phenotype phases (RPPs) to construct combinations of RPPs (cRPPs) is explored. In particular, it is shown how different cRPPs can be used to compare, for various wheat varieties, the elastic, fragmentation, equilibrium, and viscoelastic phases of an average crush response profile. In addition, relationships were obtained, based on selected RPPs from the single-kernel characterization system, that gave good predictions of the laboratory milling potential of durum wheats. This information could be used as an early generation test to predict milling yield in breeding programs without having to mill the sample. Further validation of these relationships is required by evaluating the prediction across multiple environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incorporation of fibres, whether insoluble or soluble, in durum wheat pasta negatively impacts desirable end-use properties, especially if incorporated in significant amounts. Fibres can disrupt the starch-protein matrix of the dough during pasta preparation and can also often swell more readily with water than starch, competing with the starch for water during dough development. Similar degrees of substitution with different fibres gave markedly different impacts on firmness, stickiness, cooking loss and sensory attributes, suggesting that results obtained for one fibre cannot readily be generalized to other fibres. The in vitro starch digestibility of the pastas was significantly reduced when resistant starch, β-glucan-enriched flour, carboxymethyl cellulose or guar gum was incorporated but increased when pollard or inulin was added. In many instances, different sources of the same fibre gave dramatically different impacts on the properties of cooked durum wheat pasta. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kernel hardness of cereal grains is a fundamental phenotype, and various protocols for its characterization have been proposed. Although, from different perspectives, each has proved useful, these methods do not directly address the rheological (fracturing) response of a grain when subjected to compression. Such information is hidden in the individual crush response profiles (iCRPs) obtained by measuring the response of individual grains to crushing on an SKCS 4100 device. Here, the appropriateness and utility of rheological phenotypes, based on single‐kernel measurements, are demonstrated by proposing and validating a new wheat grain hardness phenotype, the rheological hardness index (RHI). It is defined in terms of the rheological phenotype phases (RPPs) of the averaged CRPs (aCRPs) obtained by averaging a large number of iCRPs. The utility of RHI is illustrated by showing how it provides improved insight about the differences in brittleness and compactness of grains from different wheat varieties. This investigation highlights the opportunity that the RPP of the aCRPs represent for obtaining specific quantitative phenotypes for the study of hardness in cereal grains. In particular, successful plant breeding relies on segregating a breeding population into appropriate end‐use categories, for which RHI has a potential role to play. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the effect of β-glucan commercial source Barley Balance (BB) as an ingredient of spaghetti. The study used various methods to analyze the pasta made from BB mixed with durum wheat semolina including X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and one-way analysis of variance. Results showed higher antioxidant activity with BB which has no or little on the pasta.

Abstract: Pasta was prepared with modifications designed to alter its rate of digestion, including altering the ratio of A- to B-granules, incorporating higher amylose content, and varying the glutenin:gliadin ratio and HMW:LMW glutenin subunit ratio. The effects of these modifications were investigated using an in vitro hydrolysis method. A significant reduction in parameters related to glycaemic index was established for high amylose pastas and pastas with 40% B-granule composition, while most other modifications increased the rate of starch hydrolysis. All effects observed were small in comparison to the effect on glycaemic index previously obtained by addition of soluble fibres. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Pasta made from durum wheat is a widely consumed worldwide and is a healthy and convenient food. In the last two decades, there has been much research effort into improving the nutritional value of pasta by inclusion of nonconventional ingredients due to the demand by health-conscious consumers for functional foods. These ingredients can affect the technological properties of the pasta, but their health impacts are not always measured rather inferred. This review provides an overview of pasta made from durum wheat where the semolina is substituted in part with a range of ingredients (barley fractions, dietary fibre sources, fish ingredients, herbs, inulin, resistant starches, legumes, vegetables and protein extracts). Impacts on pasta technological properties and in vitro measures of phytonutrient enhancement or changes to starch digestion are included. Emphasis is on the literature that provides clinical or animal trial data on the health benefits of the functional pasta. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grain protein content >12–13% is known to be an important factor in ensuring a good pasta quality. However, the impacts of a wide protein variation on starch digestion in the pasta are not well elucidated. In this study semolina blends were prepared to achieve a protein range of 8.9–18.8%. Dough strength was not effected but water requirements for pasta making increased as protein increased. Increasing protein content caused spaghetti cooked firmness to increase and water absorption and cooking loss to decrease linearly, these being beneficial to quality. However, spaghetti became duller with more red tones at higher protein content. As protein content increased, the extent of starch digestion decreased. Microscopy analysis suggests a more extensive and cohesive network forms at higher protein that could limit access by α-amylase and reduce starch granule gelatinization which could account for reduced digestion. [Display omitted] • As protein increases, spaghetti firmness increases, cooking loss decreases. • Spaghetti becomes duller and more reddish at higher protein. • The extent of starch digestion is reduced as protein content increases. • A more cohesive and dense protein network forms at higher protein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, both yeast leavened bread (YLB) and artisanal sourdough wheat bread (SDB) were prepared. The physico-chemical, microbiological, and sensory properties of breads were monitored as a function of storage time (T = 25 °C). As expected, the titratable acidity (TA) values of SDB were higher than those of YLB. The aroma profile of SDB was similar to that of YLB, including classes of compounds such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, organic acids, terpenes, and sulfur compounds; however, the concentrations between the two were different. Aroma deterioration of bread during storage was partly related to the loss of several volatiles. Texture and sensory analysis showed that SDB was harder, less elastic, but richer in aroma and light sour taste than YLB. Mold growth was apparent when the population of yeasts/molds reached approximately 4 log cfu/g. This yeast/mold count was reached on days 4–5 for YLB and day 18 + for SDB. A 16S amplicon meta-barcoding analysis showed that the bacterial profile of SDB was dominated by a single genus, (Lactobacillus). Analysis of the eukaryotic load showed that at the genus level, Saccharomyces and Alternaria were the most abundant genera, independently of the gene sequenced (18S or ITS). Based primarily on mold growth and texture data, which proved to be the most sensitive quality parameters, the shelf life was ca. 4–5 days for YLB and 10 days for SDB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]