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Autophagy dysfunction has been closely related with pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases and therefore represents a potential therapeutic target. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) may act as potent anti‐inflammatory agents and also modulators of autophagy in target cells. However, the molecular mechanisms by which EVs modulate autophagy flux in human microglia remain largely unexplored. In the present study, we investigated the effects of EVs derived from human oral mucosa stem cells on the autophagy in human microglia. We demonstrate that EVs promoted autophagy and autophagic flux in human microglia and that this process was dependent on the integrity of lipid rafts. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) also activated autophagy, but combined treatment with EVs and LPS suppressed autophagy response, indicating interference between these signaling pathways. Blockage of Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4) with anti‐TLR4 antibody suppressed EV‐induced autophagy. Furthermore, inhibition of the EV‐associated heat shock protein (HSP70) chaperone which is one of the endogenous ligands of the TLR4 also suppressed EV‐induced lipid raft formation and autophagy. Pre‐treatment of microglia with a selective inhibitor of αvβ3/αvβ5 integrins cilengitide inhibited EV‐induced autophagy. Finally, blockage of purinergic P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) with selective inhibitor 5‐BDBD also suppressed EV‐induced autophagy. In conclusion, we demonstrate that EVs activate autophagy in human microglia through interaction with HSP70/TLR4, αVβ3/αVβ5, and P2X4R signaling pathways and that these effects depend on the integrity of lipid rafts. Our findings could be used to develop new therapeutic strategies targeting disease‐associated microglia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Targeting of disease‐associated microglia represents a promising therapeutic approach that can be used for the prevention or slowing down neurodegeneration. In this regard, the use of extracellular vesicles (EVs) represents a promising therapeutic approach. However, the molecular mechanisms by which EVs regulate microglial responses remain poorly understood. In the present study, we used EVs derived from human oral mucosa stem cells (OMSCs) to investigate the effects on the lipid raft formation and the phagocytic response of human microglial cells. Lipid raft labeling with fluorescent cholera toxin subunit B conjugates revealed that both EVs and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by more than two times increased lipid raft formation in human microglia. By contrast, combined treatment with LPS and EVs significantly decreased lipid raft formation indicating possible interference of EVs with the process of LPS‐induced lipid raft formation. Specific inhibition of Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4) with anti‐TLR4 antibody as well as inhibition of purinergic P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) with selective antagonist 5‐BDBD inhibited EVs‐ and LPS‐induced lipid raft formation. Selective blockage of αvβ3/αvβ5 integrins with cilengitide suppressed EV‐ and LPS‐induced lipid raft formation in microglia. Furthermore, inhibition of TLR4 and P2X4R prevented EV‐induced phagocytic activity of human microglial cells. We demonstrate that EVs induce lipid raft formation in human microglia through interaction with TLR4, P2X4R, and αVβ3/αVβ5 signaling pathways. Our results provide new insights about the molecular mechanisms regulating EV/microglia interactions and could be used for the development of new therapeutic strategies against neurological disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) effectively suppress neuroinflammation and induce neuroprotective effects in different disease models. However, the mechanisms by which EVs regulate the neuroinflammatory response of microglia remains largely unexplored. Here, we addressed this issue by testing the action of EVs derived from human exfoliated deciduous teeth stem cells (SHEDs) on immortalized human microglial cells. We found that EVs induced a rapid increase in intracellular Ca2+ and promoted significant ATP release in microglial cells after 20 min of treatment. Boyden chamber assays revealed that EVs promoted microglial migration by 20%. Pharmacological inhibition of different subtypes of purinergic receptors demonstrated that EVs activated microglial migration preferentially through the P2X4 receptor (P2X4R) pathway. Proximity ligation and co-immunoprecipitation assays revealed that EVs promote association between milk fat globule-epidermal growth factor-factor VIII (MFG-E8) and P2X4R proteins. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of αVβ3/αVβ5 integrin suppressed EV-induced cell migration and formation of lipid rafts in microglia. These results demonstrate that EVs promote microglial motility through P2X4R/MFG-E8-dependent mechanisms. Our findings provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms through which EVs target human microglia that may be exploited for the development of new therapeutic strategies targeting disease-associated neuroinflammation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]