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Remotely operating vehicles utilize the benefits of vehicle automation when fully automated driving is not yet possible. A human operator ensures safety and availability from afar and supports the vehicle automation when its capabilities are exceeded. The remote operator, conceptualized as remote assistant, fulfills the legal requirements in Germany as a Technical Supervisor to operate highly automated vehicles at Society of Automotive Engineers 4. To integrate the remote operator into the automated driving system, a novel user-centered human–machine interface (HMI) for a remote assistant's workplace was developed and initially evaluated. The insights gained in this process were incorporated into the design of a workplace prototype for remote assistance. This prototype was tested in the study reported here by 34 participants meeting the professional background criteria for the role of Technical Supervisor according to the German law. Typical scenarios that may occur in highly automated driving and require remote assistance were created in a simulation environment. Even under elevated cognitive load induced by simultaneously engaging in a secondary task, participants were able to obtain sufficient situation awareness and quickly resolve the scenarios. The HMI also yielded favorable usability and acceptance ratings. The results of this study inform the iterative workplace development and further research on the remote assistance of highly automated vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Highly automated shuttle vehicles (SAE Level 4) have the potential to enhance public transport services by decreasing the demand for drivers, enabling more frequent and flexible ride options. However, at least in a transitionary phase, safety operators that supervise and support the shuttles with their driving tasks may be required on board the vehicle from a technical or legal point of view. A crucial component for executing supervisory and intervening tasks is the human–machine interface between an automated vehicle and its on-board operator. This research presents in-depth case studies from three heterogenous living laboratories in Germany that deployed highly automated shuttle vehicles with on-board operators on public roads. The living labs differed significantly regarding the on-board operators' tasks and the design of the human–machine interfaces. Originally considered a provisional solution until the vehicle automation is fully capable of running without human support, these interfaces were, in general, not designed in a user-centered way. However, since technological progress has been slower than expected, on-board operator interfaces are likely to persist in the mid-term at least. Hence, this research aims to assess the aptitude of interfaces that are in practical use for the on-board operators' tasks, in order to determine the user-centered design of future interfaces. Completing questionnaires and undergoing comprehensive, semi-structured interviews, nine on-board operators evaluated their human–machine interfaces in light of the respective tasks they complete regarding user variables such as work context, acceptance, system transparency, and trust. The results were highly diverse across laboratories and underlined that the concrete system setup, encompassing task and interface design, has a considerable impact on these variables. Ergonomics, physical demand, and system transparency were identified as the most significant deficits. These findings and derived recommendations may inform the design of on-board operator workspaces, and bear implications for remote operation workstations as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Automated vehicles will soon be integrated into our current traffic system. This development will lead to a novel mixed-traffic environment where connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) will have to interact with other road users (ORU). To enable this interaction, external human–machine interfaces (eHMIs) have been shown to have major benefits regarding the trust and acceptance of CAVs in multiple studies. However, a harmonization of eHMI signals seems to be necessary since the developed signals are extremely varied and sometimes even contradict each other. Therefore, the present paper proposes guidelines for designing eHMI signals, taking into account important factors such as how and in which situations a CAV needs to communicate with ORU. The authors propose 17 heuristics, the so-called eHMI-principles, as requirements for the safe and efficient use of eHMIs in a systematic and application-oriented manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Olive trees (Olea europaea L.) are deeply interwoven with the past, present and future of Mediterranean civilizations, both as essential economical as well as cultural valuables. Olive horticulture constitutes one of the primary agroecosystems in the Mediterranean regions of today. Being inhabitant of ecological niches, Olea europaea is prone to a peculiar vulnerability towards climatic and socioeconomical transformations that are briskly reshaping regional and global agroecosystems. Because of climatic changes and the biosafety risks of global agricultural trades, olive plants are highly susceptible to newly emerging diseases and pests, and the traditional olive horticultural crop protection practices are under scrutiny towards reducing their ecological impact. Hence there is an eminent demand for a more nature-positive olive tree crop management. Recent innovations in precision agriculture are raising the prospect for innovative crop protection methods that may provide olive farmers the required agility to respond to present and future agricultural challenges. For instance, endo-therapy, which is the systemic delivery of active ingredients via trunk injection, is a technology that holds promise of a true stepchange in sustainable olive crop management. Endo-therapy allows reaching vascular diseases inaccessible to foliar treatments and delivers active ingredients in a precise manner with no risks of off-target drifts. Similarly, progresses in biological precision delivery using controlled release of active ingredients based on innovative formulation technologies are showing an exciting potential for more targeted and sustainable crop protection solutions. This review summarizes the latest innovations on both physical and biological precision deliveries in the realm of olive arboriculture in the Mediterranean regions and gives an outlook how these technologies may help orchestrating innovative olive culture practices soon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Here we report the medium-term effects of foliar spray and endo-therapy treatments with different doses of a Cu/Zn citric acid biocomplex (Dentamet®) in Xylella fastidiosa infected olive trees of Salento, Apulia region (South-east Italy). Leaf extract samples from field-treated 150 years old olive trees cvs Ogliarola salentina and Cellina di Nardò were studied by 1H NMR-based metabolomics. The result of different applications of Dentamet® endo-therapy after 60, 120 and 180 days in comparison with traditional foliar spray treatment and water injection as a control have been investigated. The metabolic profile analyses, performed by 1H NMR-based metabolomic approach, indicated plant metabolites variations connected to the disease progression such as mannitol, quinic acid, and oleuropein related compounds. The best results, in terms of discrimination of the metabolic profiles with respect to water injection, were found for monthly endo-therapy treatments. Dentamet® foliar application demonstrated more specific time related progressive effectiveness with respect to intravascular treatments. Therefore, besides a possible more effective performance of endo-therapy with respect to foliar treatments, the need of further doses/frequencies trimming to obtain long-term results was also assessed. The present field studies confirmed the indication of Dentamet® effectiveness in metabolic variation induction, potentially linked with reducing the X. fastidiosa subspecies pauca related Olive Quick Decline Syndrome (OQDS) symptoms development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Future automated vehicles (AVs) of different sizes will share the same space with other road users, e. g., pedestrians. For a safe interaction, successful communication needs to be ensured, in particular, with vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians. Two possible communication means exist for AVs: vehicle kinematics for implicit communication and external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs) for explicit communication. However, the exact interplay is not sufficiently studied yet for pedestrians' interactions with AVs. Additionally, very few other studies focused on the interplay of vehicle kinematics and eHMI for pedestrians' interaction with differently sized AVs, although the precise coordination is decisive to support the communication with pedestrians. Therefore, this study focused on how the interplay of vehicle kinematics and eHMI affects pedestrians' willingness to cross, trust and perceived safety for the interaction with two differently sized AVs (smaller AV vs. larger AV). In this experimental online study (N = 149), the participants interacted with the AVs in a shared space. Both AVs were equipped with a 360? LED light-band eHMI attached to the outer vehicle body. Three eHMI statuses (no eHMI, static eHMI, and dynamic eHMI) were displayed. The vehicle kinematics were varied at two levels (non-yielding vs. yielding). Moreover, "non-matching" conditions were included for both AVs in which the dynamic eHMI falsely communicated a yielding intent although the vehicle did not yield. Overall, results showed that pedestrians' willingness to cross was significantly higher for the smaller AV compared to the larger AV. Regarding the interplay of vehicle kinematics and eHMI, results indicated that a dynamic eHMI increased pedestrians' perceived safety when the vehicle yielded. When the vehicle did not yield, pedestrians' perceived safety still increased for the dynamic eHMI compared to the static eHMI and no eHMI. The findings of this study demonstrated possible negative effects of eHMIs when they did not match the vehicle kinematics. Further implications for a holistic communication strategy for differently sized AVs will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Remote operation bears the potential to roll out highly automated vehicles (AVs, SAE Level 4) more safely and quickly. Moreover, legal regulations on highly automated driving, e.g., the current law on highly automated driving (SAE Level 4) in Germany, permit a remote supervisor to monitor and intervene in driving operations remotely in lieu of a safety operator on board AVs. In order to derive requirements for safe and effective remote driving and remote assistance of AVs and to create suitable human-centered design solutions for human-machine interfaces (HMIs) that serve this purpose, a set of 74 core scenarios that are likely to occur in public transport AVs under remote operation was compiled. The scenarios were collected in several projects on the remote operation of AVs across a variety of contexts including interviews with and observations of control center staff, video analyses from naturalistic road events, and interviews with safety operators of AVs. A hierarchical system that is based on interactions of central actors was used to structure the scenarios. The set explicates relevant cases in remote operation, which may help improve workplaces for remote operation both by combatting human factors issues such as distraction and fatigue, and by boosting usability, user experience, trust, and acceptance. As the catalogue of scenarios is not exhaustive, scenarios may be added as knowledge of the remote operation of AVs progresses. Further research is needed to validate and adapt the scenarios to specific conceptualizations of remote operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Xylella fastidiosa is a xylem-limited bacterium causing a range of economically important plant diseases in hundreds of crops. Over the last decade, a severe threat due to Olive Quick Decline Syndrome (OQDS), caused by Xylella fastidiosa subspecies pauca, affected the Salento olive groves (Apulia, South-East Italy). Very few phyto-therapeutics, including a Zn/Cu citric acid biocomplex foliar treatment, were evaluated to mitigate this disease. However, the traditional foliar applications result in the agro-actives reaching only partially their target. Therefore the development of novel endo-therapeutic systems was suggested. Metabolite fingerprinting is a powerful method for monitoring both, disease progression and treatment effects on the plant metabolism, allowing biomarkers detection. We performed, for the first time, short-term monitoring of metabolic pathways reprogramming for infected Ogliarola salentina and Cima di Melfi olive trees after precision intravascular biocomplex delivery using a novel injection system. Upon endo therapy, we observed specific variations in the leaf content of some metabolites. In particular, the 1H NMR-based metabolomics approach showed, after the injection, a significant decrease of both the disease biomarker quinic acid and mannitol with simultaneous increase of polyphenols and oleuropein related compounds in the leaf's extracts. This combined metabolomics/endo-therapeutic methodology provided useful information in the comprehension of plant physiology for future applications in OQDS control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Despite the well-known distracting effects, many drivers still engage in phone use, especially texting and especially among young drivers, with new emerging messaging modes. The present study aims to examine the effects of different answering modes on driving performance. Twenty-four students (12 females), aged between 19 and 25 years (M = 20.83, SD = 1.53), volunteered for the study. They accomplished the Lane Change Task (LCT) with baseline and dual-task runs in a driving simulator. In dual-task runs, participants answered text messages on a smartphone by voice or text message with varying task complexity. Driving performance was measured by lane deviation (LCT) and subjective measures (NASA-TLX). Across all trials, driving performance deteriorated during dual-task runs compared with the baseline runs, and subjective demand increased. Analysis of dual-task runs showed a benefit for voice-based answering to received text messages that leveled off in the complex task. All in all, the benefits of using voice-based answering in comparison with text-based answering were found regarding driving performance and subjective measures. Nevertheless, this benefit was mostly lost in the complex task, and both the driving performance and the demand measured in the baseline conditions could not be reached. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Paving the way to future mobility, teleoperation of vehicles promises a reachable solution to effectively use the benefits of automated driving as long as fully automated vehicles (SAE 5) are not entirely feasible. Safety and reliability are assured by a human operator who remotely observes the vehicle and takes over control in cases of disturbances that exceed the vehicle automation's skills. In order to integrate the vehicle's automation and human remote-operation, we developed a novel user-centered human-machine interface (HMI) for teleoperation. It is tailored to the remoteoperation of a highly automated shuttle (SAE 4) by a public transport control center and based on a systematic analysis of scenarios, of which detailed requirements were derived. Subsequently, a paper-pencil prototype was generated and refined until a click-dummy emerged. This click-dummy was evaluated by twelve control center professionals. The experts were presented the prototype in regular mode and were then asked to solve three scenarios with disturbances in the system. Using structured interview and questionnaire methodology, the prototype was evaluated regarding its usability, situation awareness, acceptance, and perceived workload. Results support our HMI design for teleoperation of a highly automated shuttle, especially regarding usability, acceptance, and workload. Participant ratings and comments indicated particularly high satisfaction with the interaction design to resolve disturbances and the presentation of camera images. Participants' feedbacks provide valuable information for a refined HMI design as well as for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Emotions can be dangerous companions in road traffic for vehicle drivers and cyclists in particular. It is therefore important to reliably assess emotions like anger in road traffic. The first objective of the present paper is to examine whether the cycling anger scale (CAS) can be used to assess Singaporean Cyclists' anger experiences in traffic. In addition, it relates the cycling anger measure to similar constructs like driving anger (DAS), and the cyclists' experiences of trait anger in general in order to further examine the validity of the CAS scale. In an online survey, we distributed the English versions of the Cycling Anger Scale (CAS), the Driving Anger Scale (DAS), and the Trait Anger Scale (TAS) to a sample of 116 cyclists from Singapore. We then analyzed the psychometric properties of the CAS. In addition, we correlated cyclists' CAS ratings with their DAS ratings, TAS ratings, and demographic variables. Finally, we compared cycling anger ratings across cultures. With respect to the first objective, we found that the Cycling Anger Scale can be applied to cyclists from Singapore given very minor modifications. Regarding our second objective, we obtained substantial correlations between cycling anger experience, driving anger experience, and general anger experience. In addition, cyclists' CAS ratings were related to their demographic variables but not to their self-reported aggressive cycling behavior. The cross-cultural comparison revealed that cyclists from Singapore experience less anger than cyclists from other cultures. We conclude that we could show the validity of the CAS for cyclists from Singapore. Researchers and practitioners who are interested in safer cycling can apply the CAS in Singapore. In line with other studies, we also conclude that cycling anger experience is related to driving anger experience and general trait anger. However, cycling anger does not seem to be related to self-reported aggressive cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Objective: The present study has 3 objectives: First, we wanted to examine whether the Cycling Anger Scale (CAS) applies to German professional bike messengers, because this scale was previously developed with nonprofessional cyclists in Germany. Second, we wanted to look at possible differences in cycling anger experience and expression between professional German bike messengers and nonprofessional German cyclists. Third, we explored whether cycling anger is somehow related to driving anger and general anger. Methods: We applied German versions of the CAS, the Driving Anger Scale (DAS), and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) to a sample of 123 professional German bike messengers. Then we compared their ratings with the results of 421 nonprofessional German cyclists. Results: Regarding our first objective, results indicate that the CAS model fit is better for nonprofessional than for professional cyclists. However, the CAS in a slightly modified version can be used for professional cyclists as well. As for our second objective, we show that professional cyclists experience significantly less cycling anger than nonprofessional cyclists. However, bike messengers report more frequent aggressive cycling behaviors when angry, indicating a weaker link between trait anger while cycling and aggressive behavior among professionals. Thirdly, we found relations between cycling anger, driving anger, and general anger. Conclusions: We conclude that the CAS in its slightly modified 13-item version with the established 4 subscales produces an acceptable model fit and can be applied to professional German bike messengers for further research purposes or applied issues; for example, traffic education or self-awareness in terms of accident prevention behaviors. In addition, for professional cyclists, less anger does not result in less aggressive cycling behaviors. Subsequent research should explore the role of anger in behavioral regulation of cyclists' unsafe cycling behaviors taking different levels of experience and professionalism into account in order to reduce adverse effects of anger on traffic safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Objective: The main objective of this article is to examine whether the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) applies to German drivers because this scale has previously been given to drivers in many different countries.Methods: We applied German versions of the DAX, the Driving Anger Scale (DAS), and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) to a sample of 501 German drivers. We computed confirmatory factor analysis and principal axis factoring (PAF) analysis to examine the structure of driving anger expression in Germany. Finally, we related the drivers' anger exp ression scores to their driving anger experiences and their general anger propensities to assess the validity of the DAX for German drivers.Results: Results indicated that the DAX's original factor structure does not apply to German drivers because the confirmatory factor analysis did not show a good model fit. An item analysis revealed that many DAX items had no meaningful variability. They were excluded from further analysis. The subsequent PAF analysis indicated that German drivers do not use personal physical aggression to express their driving anger. Instead, they reported unique preventive anger expression management behavior. In addition, their driving anger expressions were significantly related to their driving anger experiences and their general anger propensities indicated the validity of the refined DAX for German drivers.Conclusions: We conclude that German drivers do not use strong behaviors to express their driving anger. Many statements of Deffenbacher et al.'s (Behav Res Ther. 40:717-737, 2002) original American questionnaire were not applicable for our sample of German drivers. These findings are in line with several other studies showing discrepancies in driving anger expression in various countries. Future investigations should examine the reasons for discrepancies in driving anger expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Objective: The objective of this article was 2-fold: firstly, we wanted to examine whether the original Driving Anger Scale (DAS) and the original Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) apply to German professional taxi drivers because these scales have previously been given to professional and particularly to nonprofessional drivers in different countries. Secondly, we wanted to examine possible differences in driving anger experience and expression between professional German taxi drivers and nonprofessional German drivers.Methods: We applied German versions of the DAS, the DAX, and the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI) to a sample of 138 professional German taxi drivers. We then compared their ratings to the ratings of a sample of 1,136 nonprofessional German drivers (Oehl and Brandenburg n.d. ).Results: Regarding our first objective, confirmatory factor analysis shows that the model fit of the DAS is better for nonprofessional drivers than for professional drivers. The DAX applies neither to professional nor to nonprofessional German drivers properly. Consequently, we suggest modified shorter versions of both scales for professional drivers. The STAXI applies to both professional and nonprofessional drivers. With respect to our second objective, we show that professional drivers experience significantly less driving anger than nonprofessional drivers, but they express more driving anger.Conclusions: We conclude that the STAXI can be applied to professional German taxi drivers. In contrast, for the DAS and the DAX we found particular shorter versions for professional taxi drivers. Especially for the DAX, most statements were too strong for German drivers to agree to. They do not show behaviors related to driving anger expression as they are described in the DAX. These problems with the original American DAX items are in line with several other studies in different countries. Future investigations should examine whether (professional) drivers from further countries express their anger as proposed by the DAX. In addition, professional drivers experience less driving anger (DAS) and less general trait anger (STAXI) than nonprofessional drivers, but they report more driving anger expression (DAX) and more current general state anger (STAXI). Subsequent studies should therefore focus on different types of anger within the group of professional drivers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

The development of automated vehicles (AVs) and their integration into traffic are seen by many vehicle manufacturers and stakeholders such as cities or transportation companies as a revolution in mobility. In future urban traffic, it is more likely that AVs will operate not in separated traffic spaces but in so-called mixed traffic environments where different types of traffic participants interact. Therefore, AVs must be able to communicate with other traffic participants, e.g., pedestrians as vulnerable road users (VRUs), to solve ambiguous traffic situations. To achieve well-working communication and thereby safe interaction between AVs and other traffic participants, the latest research discusses external human–machine interfaces (eHMIs) as promising communication tools. Therefore, this study examines the potential positive and negative effects of AVs equipped with static (only displaying the current vehicle automation status (VAS)) and dynamic (communicating an AV's perception and intention) eHMIs on the interaction with pedestrians by taking subjective and objective measurements into account. In a Virtual Reality (VR) simulator study, 62 participants were instructed to cross a street while interacting with non-automated (without eHMI) and automated vehicles (equipped with static eHMI or dynamic eHMI). The results reveal that a static eHMI had no effect on pedestrians' crossing decisions and behaviors compared to a non-automated vehicle without any eHMI. However, participants benefit from the additional information of a dynamic eHMI by making earlier decisions to cross the street and higher certainties regarding their decisions when interacting with an AV with a dynamic eHMI compared to an AV with a static eHMI or a non-automated vehicle. Implications for a holistic evaluation of eHMIs as AV communication tools and their safe introduction into traffic are discussed based on the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca is the causal agent of "olive quick decline syndrome" in Salento (Apulia, Italy). On April 2015, we started interdisciplinary studies to provide a sustainable control strategy for this pathogen that threatens the multi-millennial olive agroecosystem of Salento. Confocal laser scanning microscopy and fluorescence quantification showed that a zinc-copper-citric acid biocomplex—Dentamet®—reached the olive xylem tissue either after the spraying of the canopy or injection into the trunk, demonstrating its effective systemicity. The biocomplex showed in vitro bactericidal activity towards all X. fastidiosa subspecies. A mid-term evaluation of the control strategy performed in some olive groves of Salento indicated that this biocomplex significantly reduced both the symptoms and X. f. subsp. pauca cell concentration within the leaves of the local cultivars Ogliarola salentina and Cellina di Nardò. The treated trees started again to yield. A 1H-NMR metabolomic approach revealed, upon the treatments, a consistent increase in malic acid and γ-aminobutyrate for Ogliarola salentina and Cellina di Nardò trees, respectively. A novel endotherapy technique allowed injection of Dentamet® at low pressure directly into the vascular system of the tree and is currently under study for the promotion of resprouting in severely attacked trees. There are currently more than 700 ha of olive groves in Salento where this strategy is being applied to control X. f. subsp. pauca. These results collectively demonstrate an efficient, simple, low-cost, and environmentally sustainable strategy to control this pathogen in Salento. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...

Motion sickness (MS) is a syndrome associated with symptoms like nausea, dizziness, and other forms of physical discomfort. Automated vehicles (AVs) are potent at inducing MS because users are not adapted to this novel form of transportation, are provided with less information about the own vehicle's trajectory, and are likely to engage in non-driving related tasks. Because individuals with an especially high MS susceptibility could be limited in their use of AVs, the demand for MS mitigation strategies is high. Passenger anticipation has been shown to have a modulating effect on symptoms, thus mitigating MS. To find an effective mitigation strategy, the prototype of a human–machine interface (HMI) that presents anticipatory ambient light cues for the AV's next turn to the passenger was evaluated. In a realistic driving study with participants (N = 16) in an AV on a test track, an MS mitigation effect was evaluated based on the MS increase during the trial. An MS mitigation effect was found within a highly susceptible subsample through the presentation of anticipatory ambient light cues. The HMI prototype was proven to be effective regarding highly susceptible users. Future iterations could alleviate MS in field settings and improve the acceptance of AVs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...