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The understanding of complex molecular representations is crucial for comprehending molecular scientific phenomena, but many students struggle with them. Therefore, we investigated the effectiveness of short written clues in dealing with molecular representations, specifically their impact on performance, self-efficacy, and stress reactions. A total of 136 secondary school students participated and engaged in tasks involving complex molecular representations in a prior knowledge test and a main test. Half of the students received clues, while the other half did not. The results showed that students who received clues performed significantly better on the test, highlighting their effectiveness for improving performance. However, the clues had no influence on self-efficacy, which remained moderate for both groups. Physiological stress responses (heart rate variability) indicated that students without clues experienced increased stress during the main test, whereas those with clues maintained lower stress levels like those in the prior knowledge test. Subjective stress levels decreased for both groups from the prior knowledge test to the main test, with students who received clues tending to report lower stress levels. In conclusion, short written clues were found to be effective in improving performance and reducing stress levels when dealing with complex molecular representations, although long-term interventions may be required to enhance self-efficacy.

Organic molecules are invisible objects, but they can be visualized and manipulated by using molecular models. The object-based learning (OBL) approach, which is an educational tool developed for museums and collection items, is tailored and applied to a first-year bachelor course of organic chemistry. At the beginning of the course, each student is allocated a single organic molecule that they examined using a multistep interdisciplinary approach through weekly activities. The results of this innovative approach are compared with those of a traditional course and indicate that the OBL can effectively improve the performance, learning objective, and creativity of students.

In undergraduate science education, laboratory courses stand as essential cornerstones of experiential learning. Chemistry laboratory courses offer students unique hands-on experiences that bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. The journey through the undergraduate chemistry curriculum is paved with a series of conceptual gateways known as threshold concepts that can dramatically shape a student's understanding and success. We identified the idea of intermolecular forces (IMFs) as a threshold concept to students' ability to link molecular structures, properties, and applications to real-world problems such as extraction and separation of compounds. The development of course-specific pedagogical tools can provide students with the scaffolding necessary for the transition from novice to expert-level disciplinary comprehension. This work presents the development process of a Threshold Concept Assessment Rubric (TCAR) based on Johnstone's triangle framework and discusses its application for evaluating students' progress in overcoming a threshold concept. The rubric is used in a 200-level multilayer laboratory course that is intentionally designed with intermolecular forces as the central theme. We analyze the role and structure of different questions to provide a holistic assessment of students' learning processes using sample assignments. Furthermore, we demonstrate how insights from statistical analyses can highlight areas in which students struggle to gain expert or exemplary-level understanding of IMFs. This rubric development approach can be applied to other threshold concepts.

The process of diffusion is intimately related to random molecular displacement and is central to many problems in chemistry. Here, we provide an intuitive derivation of the diffusion equation based on the analysis of the random trajectories of particles generated and plotted by simple MATLAB and Python scripts. The codes are very simple and profusely commented on, so they can be modified by students and instructors with little experience with these software packages. The codes plot the trajectories in 1D, 2D, and 3D of a number of particles during a number of steps, both specified by the operator. Advanced versions of the codes with animated evolution of the diffusion process are also provided. The interactive generation and analysis of the trajectories of the particles in different scenarios allows a faster and more complete understanding of the effect of the number of particles, diffusion time, or dimensionality of the system, on the basic aspects of chemical diffusion, like mean square displacement, through the statistical nature of the process. A series of activities for the instructor and students was also suggested.

Virtual classrooms based on the metaverse or virtual reality are useful and effective for imparting basic chemistry concepts. Interactive and immersive environments can effectively teach fundamental chemistry concepts, such as chemical bonding and formulas, thereby making these otherwise abstract and intangible ideas more accessible and understandable. With the outbreak of COVID-19, e-learning platforms have also been developed for chemistry education. However, these platforms are unable to make learning chemistry interactive and enjoyable. Therefore, there is a need to motivate students to learn basic chemistry concepts in an immersive and interactive environment. In this paper, we propose an immersive virtual reality-based Virtual Chemistry Classroom for Chemical Bonding (VC3B) to facilitate the learning of chemical bonding and formulas through a game-based learning approach. It includes two different games for learning chemical bonding and formulas. In the first game, molecule construction, students reconstruct the structure of molecules by rearranging the atoms in order to learn about chemical bonding. In the second game, chemical formula, students compose the chemical formula of a given compound to help them memorize chemical formulas. The study, conducted on 90 middle school students, employed a randomized controlled study design, dividing participants into three groups. Each group learned about chemical bonding and formulas through three different mediums. After conducting the experiment, the students were given a questionnaire to evaluate the usability of VC3B. The results of the study were positive, with participants finding the VC3B to be more interactive than traditional book and online lecture methods. Participants were also motivated to learn and enhance their knowledge of chemistry.

A new teaching resource comprised of raw X-ray diffraction data sets from crystallography experiments has been compiled. The aim of this resource is to provide a tool with which to plug the teaching gap between crystals and chemical structures present at various levels of education, as well as providing examples for early stage researchers and institutions without the requisite instrumentation to use for training. The data sets mirror the contents of the highly successful CSD Teaching Subset and include examples that demonstrate the effects of wavelength, crystal quality, and collection temperature. As crystallography underpins our understanding of chemical structure, exposure to the technique will be beneficial to students in terms of providing understanding of where the structures in the CSD Teaching Subset originate as well as insights into many overlapping fields such as scattering theory and symmetry. The resource will be available through the CCDC Web site and will provide links to the software required for data processing and documentation describing its use. It is hoped that this resource will expand with contributions from users in terms of both data and teaching exercises.

Modifications are presented for the iodine clock reaction to introduce the concept of activity and to help students better appreciate molecular aspects of chemical equilibrium. The addition of an unreactive salt affects the activity of the reactants in the iodine clock reaction. The difference in activity affects how long the iodine clock reaction takes to show the color change, even though the concentration of reactants has not changed. Resources and suggestions are provided to use the modified iodine clock reaction in both introductory/general chemistry courses and more advanced analytical and physical chemistry courses to expose students to the concept of activity and its role in chemical reactions and equilibrium.

Effective spatial visualization and reasoning skills are often credited for students' success in science and engineering courses. However, students enrolled in these science courses are not always exposed to or trained properly on the best ways to utilize models to aid in their learning. Improving spatial visualization techniques with 3D models, such as molecular and DNA modeling kits, is often suggested to facilitate students' ability to conceptualize compounds in two and three dimensions. Here, we investigate what techniques students use to conceptualize 2D representations of various biomolecules with the use of 3D models by interviewing undergraduate students from various natural science and engineering disciplines in task-based, think-aloud sessions. After scoring and analyzing the participant data we explored some of the techniques used among successful scoring participants, including the use of informal models to transition between 2D and 3D. Additional techniques used by students who were able to successfully conceptualize 3D images included starting with smaller, granular details to inductively make conclusions when thinking between two and three dimensions. We find that (1) students who anchor their thinking in 3D models show a deeper level of understanding in initially solving science problems successfully, and (2) proper 3D model use and spatial visualization techniques may improve students' abilities to accurately visualize 2D and 3D representations of molecules in science courses. Our results demonstrate that implementing spatial visualization training to teach students how to effectively use 3D models may improve students' problem-solving techniques in science curricula.

The aim of this study was to develop molecular genetics inquiry programs using the "eyes absent" gene of "Drosophila melanogaster." The program was composed of various molecular genetics experiments, including mutation observation, cross-breeding, searching for genetic information in web databases, gDNA extraction, and PCR. Each experiment was designed to include a reasoning process, thus aligning the program closely with the structure of authentic scientific research. This program was also developed with a modular design to provide flexibility in its implementation. The program was implemented for middle school students affiliated with a university science education institute for the gifted, and surveys indicated that students had positive experiences with the program. Our findings suggest that the program provides students with a contextual understanding of how authentic research is conducted. Finally, we suggest ways to implement the program effectively.

A mixture of salt water and isopropyl alcohol is immiscible, forming two separate liquids with the organic layer on top and aqueous layer on bottom. When universal indicator is added to such a mixture, all of the indicator compounds in the universal indicator preferentially dissolve in the alcohol--except for phenolphthalein at high pH. Mixtures of alcohol, salt water, and universal indicator in a bottle can be made to display a variety of layered color effects within the bottle by adjusting the pH. The various phenomena observed can be tied to an assortment of chemical topics including density, the classification of matter, solubility, intermolecular forces, and acid-base chemistry.

This article describes a novel method for quantifying fixation disparity and evaluates its role in visuospatial cognition during an authentic learning task, specifically, the determination of molecule chirality in organic chemistry involving mental rotation and pattern comparison. The first study examined the influence of molecular model dimensionality (2D vs. 3D) on chirality determination performance and visual attention of 55 participants. The second study explored how the sustained playing of the tile-matching game Mahjong, a pattern comparison game, can affect visual attention and visuospatial performance during the chirality determination task of 59 participants. Fixation disparity was one of the eye tracking variables explored. Both studies revealed that (1) individuals with higher fixation disparity underperformed on the chirality task, which involves mental rotation and pattern comparison, and (2) fixation disparity improved over time in participants who played Mahjong. This work provides important implications for using fixation disparity as a possible biomarker of visuospatial performance.

An understanding of basic organic chemical reactivity is key for many biosciences students. The reactivities of different carbonyl groups affect their function in many biomolecules. A practical class, the two-step synthesis of paracetamol, has been devised to illustrate the electrophilic reactivities of carbonyls, which was covered in the accompanying lecture program. Students also examine the UV, IR, NMR, and mass spectra of the esters and amides, building further on the understanding gained in lectures. The practical work itself has been devised to be able to be run in bioscience laboratories with limited chemical facilities. The class has been enhanced during four academic years with strong support from the students.

Industrial drug discovery teams encompass scientists from multiple specialties and require participants to communicate effectively across disciplinary boundaries. In this paper, we present an undergraduate or graduate classroom simulation of this environment. Over a series of five workshops, student teams of mixed scientific backgrounds perform five iterations of the chemistry cycle of small molecule drug discovery. Students analyze physicochemical, structural, and (fictional) assay data and use these to design new compounds for testing. Simulated assay results are returned to students who use the information in the design of subsequent compounds. After workshop 5, each team selects a single lead compound, supported by a potential synthetic route, a portfolio of assay data, and logical scientific decision-making. Our exercise provides students with opportunities for hands-on student-responsive data handing, team-building, and technical knowledge acquisition--all within an industrially relevant scientific scenario.

Molecules and Computer: Chemistry Calculations in Class (MC[superscript 4]) is a computational laboratory intended for final-year high school or undergraduate students. The topic is the antioxidant potential of anthocyanidins, which is chemically related to their radical scavenging action via the mechanism of hydrogen atom transfer (HAT). This laboratory combines (bio)chemical and nutraceutical concepts with organic chemical reactions involving radical species. It allows students to apply important physicochemical (thermodynamic) concepts, such as Gibbs free energy of reaction and solvation. Finally, the procedure can easily be tailored to the resources at hand as well as the knowledge of the students. In fact, when computing facilities are not available, the whole set of molecular structures and energy data are provided as well as a simple datasheet required for their analysis. Alternatively, the whole protocol and useful scripts are provided so that students can generate their own results by experiencing the approach to computational chemistry.

The rise of virtual and online education in recent years has led to the development and popularization of many online tools, notably three-dimensional (3D) models and augmented reality (AR), for visualizing various structures in chemical sciences. The majority of the developed tools focus on either small molecules or biological systems, as information regarding their structure can be easily accessed from online databases or obtained through relatively quick calculations. As such, due to a lack of crystallographic and theoretical data available for nonbiological macromolecules, there is a noticeable lack of accessible online tools for the visualization of polymers in 3D. Herein, using a few sample polymers, we showcase a workflow for the generation of 3D models using molecular dynamics and Blender. The 3D structures can then be hosted on p3d.in, where AR models can be generated automatically. Furthermore, the hosted 3D models can then be shared via quick response (QR) codes and used in various settings without the need to download any applications.

The basics of organic chemistry nomenclature were introduced in a laboratory organized in a nonformal environment such as a science festival. The laboratory, divided into three distinct but interconnected activities, was aimed not only at secondary school students but also at lay people. The intent was to explain the importance of associating a name to a molecular structure and conversely and that this is relevant not only for scientists but also in everyday life in order to better understand the properties of commonly used molecules. The overall goal was to stimulate interest in chemical topics with the aid of fun and engaging activities.

The focus of the present study is the learning processes of concepts related to hydrogen bonds, which were developed using a didactic sequence (DS). Based on the perspective of Imre Lakatos, it was observed whether the explanatory models created by upper-secondary students form progressive transition sequences, which are similar to what Lakatos, in his text The History of Science, calls a "problem" that increases the explanatory/heuristic power of the model. To evaluate the evolution of these models, which generally consist of progressive transitions, four phases were developed: (1) the categorization of answers obtained in the DS in Realist, Empiricist or Rationalist zones, as well as an attribution of scores; (2) the determination of a score range for said zones; (3) hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and (4) an analysis of the progressive transition of the explanatory models. A continuous review of the ideas expressed by the students during their learning of the subject revealed that a significant share of students progressed conceptually. In a general way, it can be said that the activities developed in the DS contributed substantially to the progressive transition of the explanatory models made by most students. Furthermore, the approach of the DS toward the subject of hydrogen bonds allowed the students to interpret the phenomena studied using their knowledge of Chemistry.

Being able to move between different representations levels (macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic) is important to understand a chemical phenomenon meaningfully. The current study investigated how pre-service science teachers moved from symbolic representation to sub-microscopic representation. A total of 205 pre-service science teachers, first, balanced the three chemical reactions and then drew the reactions' sub-microscopic views if they were able to observe them. The findings revealed that pre-service science teachers are most successful at the symbolic level. Yet, this is not a valid conclusion for the sub-microscopic representation level. The drawings were analyzed concerning atomic size and molecular geometry and found that pre-service science teachers have common alternative concepts. Furthermore, they mostly have a superficial knowledge of the molecular geometry of chemical compounds. In conclusion, because preservice science teachers will teach in their future careers, it is important to encourage them to comprehend chemical phenomena at each representation level and shift between them to prevent alternative concepts they may have.

Students perceive molecular bonding as an abstract concept; therefore, learning this concept seems uninteresting and difficult. A strategically designed learning object (LO), such as in the form of a simulation, can be used to help students acquire accurate mental images and build appropriate schema in addition to providing a concrete learning experience and encouraging knowledge construction. This paper presents an evaluation of the design and development of the "Making Molecules" simulation through students' perceptions of the previous version and recommendations for improving a future version. Data were collected from two online chemistry courses (N = 159) through an anonymous online survey. Results suggest that students responded positively to the use of the simulation. They reported gaining a better understanding of molecular bonding through an interactive learning experience. One of their recommendations was to include more learning tasks related to complex molecules, expressing an interest in learning more about chemistry. This paper provides insights for educators and instructional designers regarding selection and/or design of an LO for optimizing student learning of complex topics.

The rapid onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, has brought to light how important technology may be to the socio-economic development of a nation, particularly in Africa. The study conducted a narrative review of pertinent literature to objectively assess the effects of two types of emerging digital technologies (Artificial Intelligence [AI]) and nanotechnologies in Africa. The results showed that emerging technology-related research, development, and deployment are happening throughout Africa. Nanotechnology and AI have had a substantial impact in many spheres of African economies. The study, however, acknowledges in its conclusion that not all African nations have derived the same benefits from emerging technologies, including the digitalisation processes. There are still large disparities in the accessibility of technology and digital skills in several rural and underdeveloped areas in Africa. Thus, recommendations on how to close these gaps are provided for all African countries to profit more consistently from the emerging technologies and the digitalisation processes.

The biology education literature includes compelling assertions that unfamiliar problems are especially useful for revealing students' true understanding of biology. However, there is only limited evidence that such novel problems have different cognitive requirements than more familiar problems. Here, we sought additional evidence by using chatbots based on large language models as models of biology students. For human physiology and cell biology, we developed sets of realistic and hypothetical problems matched to the same lesson learning objectives (LLOs). Problems were considered hypothetical if (i) known biological entities (molecules and organs) were given atypical or counterfactual properties (redefinition) or (ii) fictitious biological entities were introduced (invention). Several chatbots scored significantly worse on hypothetical problems than on realistic problems, with scores declining by an average of 13%. Among hypothetical questions, redefinition questions appeared especially difficult, with many chatbots scoring as if guessing randomly. These results suggest that, for a given LLO, hypothetical problems may have different cognitive demands than realistic problems and may more accurately reveal students' ability to apply biology core concepts to diverse contexts. The Test Question Templates (TQT) framework, which explicitly connects LLOs with examples of assessment questions, can help educators generate problems that are challenging (due to their novelty), yet fair (due to their alignment with pre-specified LLOs). Finally, ChatGPT's rapid improvement toward expert-level answers suggests that future educators cannot reasonably expect to ignore or outwit chatbots but must do what we can to make assessments fair and equitable.

Research suggests that students hold misconceptions about the immune system, but little is known about how they reason about the mechanisms by which the immune system operates. This study investigated how students reasoned about the immune system in Beirut, Lebanon. The study used a qualitative approach and investigated 16 Grade 12 participants who learned an immunology unit for one month. Data analysis was based on students' responses during a pre/post written assessment and one-on-one semi-structured post-unit interviews to determine the levels of reasoning. The results revealed misconceptions about different immune elements and identified five levels of reasoning. The first level of reasoning revealed responses of informal/ everyday nature. The second level of reasoning revealed responses identifying a simple mechanism of the non-specific immune response. The third level of reasoning involved responses identifying simple processes of the specific immune response. In the fourth level of reasoning, students' responses recognized complex immune mechanisms without relating the microscopic elements to the macroscopic response. Finally, in the fifth level of reasoning, students' responses identified the complex processes and linked micro-elements to macro observations. Our findings indicated that identifying the molecular structures and their roles is a stepping stone to understanding the immune system holistically. We explained how this study extends the literature on systemic reasoning and discussed those results by determining the difficulty of reaching the highest level, suggesting implications for curriculum and instruction.

Students need a strong understanding of how to represent chemical compounds in order to succeed in organic chemistry. This project set out to gain a better understanding of students' difficulties with symbolic representations, by identifying the specific errors associated with drawing wedge-dash structures. The focus was on how students transformed a condensed formula into a wedge-dash structure. The types of errors were coded and analyzed to determine the proportion of students making each type of error between the quiz, exam and final. These errors were connected to the skill of information processing to determine which category of information processing had the most improvement.

Nanoscience and Technology (NST) have revolutionized the world. It has led to many innovations since it entered our lives. Meanwhile, the number and quality of people trained in this field gained importance. Currently, initiatives are being taken to integrate this field into the primary education curriculum in many countries. This study focuses on integrating NST into the curriculum as a primary education topic. In this context, meta-synthesis research was used. First, developed countries' well-known initiatives on adapting NST to the curriculum will be discussed in the paper. Then, the works on NST in the literature, especially experimental ones, will be addressed. Finally, based on the results, some suggestions will be made for creating a curriculum in this field. Although there are differences in countries' curriculums, the basic knowledge necessary for education in this field is also outlined.

Teaching chemistry and biology students about biologics design remains challenging despite its increasing importance in pharmaceutical development. Monoclonal antibodies, commonly called mAbs, are the most popular biologics. They have been developed into drugs to treat various diseases in the past decades. Multiple challenges exist for designing proper formulations to stabilize mAbs, such as preventing aggregation and mitigating viscosity. Molecular modeling and simulations can improve pharmaceutical products by examining the interactions between mAbs and other compounds, such as excipients. To introduce students to biopharmaceuticals, eight students at the Stevens Institute of Technology participated in a semester-long course to learn the challenges of pharmaceutical development and different computational skills to study biologics design. The students started with a limited background in this field. Throughout one semester, they were introduced to various literature and software tools for modeling antibodies and studying their interactions with excipients. This paper aims to develop a course structure to be replicated at other universities and institutions to teach biopharmaceutical development to students.

The laboratory practice "Primary culture and directional differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs)" is part of a required course for sophomore medical students at Tongji university, which has been conducted since 2012. Blended learning has been widely applied in medical courses. Based on a student-centered teaching philosophy, we reconstructed a comprehensive stem cell laboratory module with blended learning in 2021, aiming to facilitate students in enhancing their understanding of the multi-lineage differentiation potential of stem cells and improve their experimental skills, self-directed learning ability, and innovative thinking. First, we constructed in-depth online study resources, including videos demonstrating laboratory procedures, a PowerPoint slide deck, and published literature on student self-learning before class. In class, students performed a primary culture of BMSCs, freely chose among adipogenic, osteogenic, or chondrogenic differentiation, and used cytochemical or immunofluorescence staining for identification. After class, the extracurricular part involved performing quantitative polymerase chain reaction to examine the expression of multi-lineage differentiation marker genes, which was designed as an elective. After 2 years of practice, positive feedback was obtained from both students and faculty members who achieved, the learning goal as expected. The reconstructed stem cell laboratory module provides comprehensive practice opportunities for students. Students have a better understanding of BMSC at the molecular, cellular, and functional levels and have improved their experimental skills, which forms a basis for scientific research for medical students. Introducing blended learning into other medical laboratory practices thus seems valuable.

The range of abstract concepts encountered when learning chemistry and the inability of students to make connections between the macroscopic, sub-microscopic, and symbolic representations, used in chemistry teaching, are believed to be the main reasons for students' difficulty when learning chemistry. Prediction and determination of molecular geometry using the theory of valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) is a sample of the abstract concept that is hard to understand by students who learn chemistry. Students may comprehend these ideas better if the learning process is supplemented with cutting-edge, interactive learning aids. To address the conceptual difficulties that students encounter when learning how to predict the shapes of molecules, a card game (MGCards) has been developed which is supported by simple molecular model building (MMB). The card game allows students to work through the steps required to predict the shape of a molecule in an engaging format. The student learning process is supported by feedback at all stages (if students make a mistake, they receive hints that will help them in the next step of the game). Action research with qualitative methods has been used to design, develop, and evaluate the MGCards. The MGCards and MMB were piloted at the University of Leicester with year one Natural Sciences students and modified based on the feedback received. Both MGCards and MMB were then used as part of the first-year chemistry education programme at Tanjungpura University in Indonesia. The findings of students' answer analysis (pre- and post-test) in both cycles showed that students had a better understanding after learning with MGCards and MMB. The positive feedback for MGCards and MMB confirmed that these resources were effective in delivering an engaging learning experience. The results suggest that MGCards and MMB play a significant role in enhancing students' understanding while also keeping them engaged.

Anaerobic digestion is a complex biochemical process that is represented by the stoichiometric Buswell's equation. Buswell's equation is the study of the interface among biochemistry, mathematics, and chemistry. Students often have difficulty in understanding the nature of biochemical stoichiometry. Buswell's equation is significant for the calculation of the quantity of biomethane. Although the general formula CxHyOz of organic pure substance or mixture has been well studied, the Buswell's equation for biomolecules containing phosphorous has rarely been explored. The aim of this article is to study the nature of Buswell's equation using the H-atom method. The new general Buswell's equation, which contains phosphorous, is deduced from the H-atom and algebraic methods.

Representations in chemistry are the tools by which students, instructors, and chemists reason with chemical concepts that are abstract. Although representations are regularly used within the chemistry classroom, there is more to uncover regarding the ways students interact with representations when given chemistry tasks. This study aimed to address this gap in knowledge. In this study, eighteen students enrolled in second semester general chemistry were recruited for data collection. Semi-structured interviews were utilized to observe how students approached a similar set of dipole-dipole interaction tasks when given four distinct representations. Analysis of the data revealed that students' approaches to these tasks were affected by the newly explicit features present within each representation. Additionally, the ordering in which the representations were presented to the students influenced the specific features students took notice of and implemented into their approaches to the tasks. These findings can better inform instruction and future research involving chemical representations such that students will form a solid foundation in working with and pulling relevant information from various representations when solving chemistry tasks.

Most biology undergraduates learn about mutations in multiple classrooms throughout their college career. Understanding personalised genome test results, genome editing controversies, and the appearance of new variants of viruses or antibiotic resistant bacteria all require foundational knowledge about mutations. However, the abstract nature of molecular processes surrounding mutations makes them one of the more difficult topics for students to understand and apply. Instructors need valid assessment tools to document student understanding and tailor their instructional methods to address student knowledge gaps. We describe here the development and validation of the Mutations Criterion Referenced Assessment (MuCRA). This formative assessment was developed through an iterative process involving expert feedback and student responses to both open-ended and multiple-choice questions. The final MuCRA is composed of 10 multiple-choice questions aligned with three learning objectives. The item difficulty for each question was between 0.32-0.65, while the discrimination index ranged from 0.31-0.75 and the reliability (KR20) for the MuCRA was 0.69. The congruence analyses demonstrated distractors are capturing student misconceptions in 9/10 questions. These data indicate that the MuCRA can be used to reliably assess student learning and common misconceptions about mutations.

Appealing to students' affect in academic settings, such as demonstrating chemistry's relevance to their life, is one strategy instructors may use to support students' in learning. This study investigates the types of connections that students make to organic chemistry when responding to an open-ended writing assignment. Students enrolled in an introductory level organic chemistry course were asked to choose and write about an organic molecule they felt was important to their life, in doing so students wrote about the molecule's relevance to their life. Analysis of the writing was supported by semi-structured interviews with a subset of the students in which they discussed their approach to completing the assigment. Conclusions from this study suggest that students successfully made connections between their chosen molecule and their life. Considered through the lens of relevance, students can both seek and find relevance in organic chemistry topics on a personal, societal, or vocational level; and therefore may reinforce their comprehension and appreciation of chemistry.

Central to conceptual understanding of STEM disciplines is visuospatial processing. Despite its acknowledged role in assuring learners' success, less is known about the underlying reasoning students must employ when solving 3-D problems and the ways in which gaining an understanding of this can inform formative assessment and learning in STEM education. Chemists must utilise their spatial understanding when visualising 3-D structures and processes from 2-D representations and so this exploratory practitioner-researcher study sought to identify the ways in which secondary school chemistry students reason when explaining their predictions about molecular geometry, and how the use of certain modalities was linked to assessed accuracy. Coding of students' verbal and written responses to the research task revealed that students employed multiple reasoning strategies and conceptual resources to facilitate use of analytical heuristics and imagistic reasoning. Analysis of students' verbal responses and spontaneous gestures provided insight into the extent of imagistic vs. analytical reasoning and the finergrained conditions which promoted their use. Importantly, it was observed that despite being instructed on the use of VSEPR theory to find analytical solutions, some students exhibited preference for alternative reasoning strategies drawing upon imagistic reasoning; showing more nuanced and varying degrees of accuracy through their verbal responses and representations gestured in 3D space. This work has pedagogical implications as use of specific reasoning strategies and the identification of key conceptual resources is not readily promoted as classroom practice for learning or assessment. This study therefore raises questions and contributes to the evidence base for attending to learners' visuospatial thinking, as revealed through the multiple modalities they may use to assist and communicate their understanding, and highlights the significance of this to formative assessment in Chemistry and STEM Education.

Education in organic chemistry is highly reliant on molecular representations. Students abstract information from representations to make sense of submicroscopic interactions. This study investigates relationships between differing representations: bond-line structures, ball-and-stick, or electrostatic potential maps (EPMs), and predicting partial charges, nucleophiles, and electrophiles. The study makes use of students' answers in hot-spot question format, where they select partially charged atoms on the image of a molecule and explanations. Analysis showed no significant difference among students when predicting a partially positive atom with each representation; however, more students with EPMs were able to correctly predict the partially negative atom. No difference was observed across representations in students predicting electrophilic character; while representations did influence students identifying nucleophilic character. The affordance of EPMs was that they cued more students to cite relative electronegativity indicating that such students were able to recognize the cause for electron rich/poor areas. This recognition is central to rationalizing mechanisms in organic chemistry. This study offers implications on incorporating EPMs during instruction and provides evidence-based support in how EPMs could be useful in promoting learning on topics that relate to an uneven charge distribution.

Asking students to explain why phenomena occur at a molecular level is vital to increasing their understanding of chemistry concepts. One way to elicit students' mechanistic reasoning and guide construction of knowledge is through Writing-to-Learn (WTL), which is a promising approach for students in organic chemistry courses. In the design of WTL assignments, rhetorical aspects provide an authentic context by designating a role, genre, and audience for students. This context can support students' learning, but, if the rhetorical aspects misalign with the learning objectives of the assignment, they can hinder students' ability to achieve these objectives. In this project, we designed a WTL assignment about a base-free Wittig reaction, which we implemented in an organic chemistry laboratory course. Here, we explore how changes in the rhetorical aspects of this assignment can influence the way students explain two different comparisons of reaction mechanisms. We consider how students use explicit and implicit properties and how the use of these features compares within the context of the reaction. Results indicate that, when the rhetorical aspects align with the learning objectives of the assignment, students provide more productive elaborations that use both explicit and implicit properties. This is supported by both the analysis of students' writing and students' feedback about the assignments.

With many universities now admitting students into their science programs with little or no prior knowledge of the relevant field, significant challenges arise in the way these fields are introduced. Challenges mount with various preconceived ideas regarding the levels of difficulty, thus necessitating introductory concepts be presented in nonthreatening, engaging, simplistic, and efficacious ways. Within the field of Chemistry, a key introductory concept, forming the base of the scaffold for all science fields, is that of the atom and its fundamental particles. Traditionally, this physical concept is introduced visually by using the Bohr model. We have adopted a novel approach/activity where we build an atom from scratch using student volunteers to represent the fundamental particles of the atom on the lecture stage floor. We sequentially incorporate more students/particles to illustrate the various interactions that take place in the atom. The students adopt different locations and paths (dynamic movement) on the lecture floor. A synchronous display of animation using PowerPoint with the on-floor demonstration (utilizing and constructing human-atoms) is combined with key relevant questions. We sequentially ask all students during the learning experience to link the stage floor demonstration to atomic properties. This highlights key aspects and relationships, including attractive/repulsive forces between particles, electron energy levels, electron shielding/effective nuclear charge, size of atoms, reactivity of atoms, and nuclear transformations. Feedback from students (n = 226) using the Likert scale showed favorable responses to the utilization of this form of introduction.

High-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) is an analytical technique that is typically used by mass spectrometry experts. However, with recent advancements, it is becoming more accessible to students in organic chemistry laboratories. Still, a significant knowledge gap exists between these experts and students. A straightforward laboratory experiment in HRMS is crucial to bridging this gap. This experiment outlines key steps for understanding HRMS, including defining the resolution, estimating the molecular formulas using accurate mass, understanding the calibration, selecting the appropriate ionization methods and calibration compounds, and validating the results. Following these steps will enable students to better grasp HRMS and effectively use it in their research.

An integrated system comprising a commercial high-performance liquid chromatography HPLC (except autosampler) equipped with an external multichannel autofeeding module was developed to accomplish interference-free separation and kinetic tracking for the H[subscript 2]O[subscript 2]-thiourea reaction, which is proposed as a lab experiment for students who have the background of chemical kinetics. Compared to conventional HPLC, the proposed system: (i) provides a similar pedagogical purpose, where students' knowledge in chemistry can be strengthened and improved and (ii) enables online species tracking and kinetic analysis of reactions with the spectral overlap of multiple species, and other interference factors such as turbidity caused by precipitation formation, bubble requirement, or external excitation light for photocatalysis. Additionally, automation of the proposed equipment allows for saving labor and high efficiency. Based on the reliability and accuracy of the proposed system, different species including reactants, intermediates, and products were simultaneously tracked during thiourea oxidation. Both kinetic curves of multiple species and kinetic parameters obtained provide lots of reliable data for fitting and mechanistic analysis. Because the H[subscript 2]O[subscript 2]-thiourea reaction as a lab experiment successfully performed by students with this technology has proven its operability for undergraduates majoring in chemistry, this proposed method is easy to extend to environmental science, pharmacokinetics, and other fields.

Genetics is a subject that is quite difficult according to students. Various strategies and methods are used to understand genetics in learning to have genetic literacy. One way of increasing genetic literacy in students is to apply genetic problems based on an online discussion in genetics lectures. The research was conducted to determine the effect of genetic problem-based online discussion on increasing students' genetic literacy. The research design used a pre-posttest control group design. It was carried out experimentally on three treatment groups: the genetic problem base of students, the genetic problem base of educators--students, and the genetic problem base of educators. According to the genetic literacy domain, genetic literacy is measured through multiple-choice tests, including genetic models, meiotic models, and molecular models. Manova analyzed the value of gene literacy, and a post-doc further test was performed to differentiate genetic literacy in the three treatment groups. The results showed that genetic literacy increased in all treatment groups, with the highest increase in the group that applied a genetic problem base focused on student problems.

The study diagnosed chemistry teacher trainees' difficulties in naming and writing structures of spiro and bicyclic compounds. The case study design was conducted in a constructivist environment to enhance chemistry teacher trainees' ability to construct, represent, and interpret the structural formulae of spiro and bicyclic compounds. Purposive sampling technique was employed to select 126 1st-year chemistry teacher trainees from University of Education, Winneba for the study. The results revealed that chemistry teacher trainees had difficulties in naming and writing structural formulae of spiro and bicyclic compounds. However, through the effective use of molecular model kits in teaching naming and writing structures of spiro and bicyclic compounds, these chemistry teacher trainees became conscious of IUPAC rules for naming and writing spiro and other cyclic compounds. At-test conducted indicated that a statistical significance difference existed between students' performance before the implementation of the intervention and after the intervention. It is recommended that chemistry teachers should adopt the use of molecular model kits in teaching concepts of organic nomenclature.

Analogies and modelling have been developed and applied in learning and teaching science to facilitate students' understanding of abstract concepts, such as atomic structure. Considering few studies focus on comparing the effects of two teaching strategies--analogy-based teaching (ABT) and modelling-based teaching (MBT)--this study aims to compare the effects of ABT and MBT on high school students' content understanding and transferability of atomic concepts in science. Implementing a quasi-experimental design with pre-post-delayed tests, the study compared learning outcomes achieved by the MBT group (N = 68) and the ABT group (N = 69). The results showed both MBT and ABT could improve students' content understanding and promote transferability. However, the MBT group significantly outperformed the ABT group in terms of generating initial models and overall transferability. Although there was no difference in content understanding, or near or far transferability, at post-test between the two groups, the MBT group maintained more extended memory of atomic structure on the delayed post-test. Moreover, qualitative analysis of students' drawings of atomic models revealed that both groups were able to develop and transfer their models, but inadequate scientific knowledge affected the quality of the transfer product. These findings have implications for designing and implementing instructional approaches that leverage analogy and modelling in the science class.

The concept of hybridisation is one of the most difficult concepts for chemistry students to grasp at all levels of learning. Research showed the students conceptual difficulty ranged from their lack of the prerequisite knowledge for grasping the topic hybridisation to chemical bond formation and orientations of atomic orbitals. This study investigated the difficulties Senior High School Students face in learning hybridisation. The study adopted a mixed-method approach using the sequential exploratory design. Purposive sampling was used to select six schools that offer elective chemistry subject. Simple random sampling was then used to select 120 Senior High School form 1 students to take part in the study. Convenient sampling was used to interview 24 students from the sample. Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT) and Semi-structured interviews were self-constructed and used to collect data. Descriptive statistics and Content analysis were used to analyse the data. Results showed that, majority of students had difficulties in explaining the concept of hybrid orbitals, writing the electron configuration of [subscript 6]C, explaining the effect of hybridisation on formation of chemical bonds in [subscript 6]C, and type of hybridisation and shapes of compounds such as NH[subscript 3], OF[subscript 2], BCl[subscript 3], CO[subscript 2], SiO[subscript 2], C[subscript 2]H[subscript 2], BeF[subscript 2] and C[subscript 2]H[subscript 4]. The study also showed that students had difficulties in explaining and demonstrating the formation of C = C double bond in ethene and other compounds. Equally students were challenged in demonstrating the differences between the formation of sigma and pi bonds in compounds. Students had difficulties in using electron orbital diagrams to explain the shape of CO[subscript 2] as linear. The study concluded that Senior High School form 1 chemistry students in the Upper West Region of Ghana lacked the most basic and fundamental concept of hybridisation. Teachers need to use conceptual change instructional approaches to teach hybridisation in order to foster students' understanding and reduce misconceptions.

The yellow-blue color pair has been used in creative artwork such as paintings and designs and in color engineering. Herein we present a method for using the yellow-blue combination in a chemistry lesson dealing with [pi]-conjugated molecules for first-year undergraduate students who are not science majors. The lesson begins with an introduction to primary yellow compounds that contain p conjugation within their molecular structures and a demonstration of yellow dyeing using gardenia fruits or marigold petals. In addition to an overview of various yellow compounds, blue compounds with [pi]-conjugated molecular structures are presented to enhance the perceived aesthetic stimulus. Yellow luminescence, blue luminescence, and intramolecular and intermolecular chemical reactions to produce yellow and blue compounds are exhibited. Through these demonstrations, students learn about basic [pi]-conjugated molecular structure.

The application of chemistry concepts in biological settings plays an important role in the interdisciplinary field of drug discovery and development. This is true for molecular docking, where an understanding of intermolecular forces and noncovalent interactions is useful for rational drug design and development. Here we report the design and use of a molecular docking activity for cancer drug discovery for users that requires minimal coding knowledge. Although used in a drug discovery context, this activity can be incorporated into a range of undergraduate/graduate chemistry and biochemistry courses either as a stand-alone activity or integrated into existing curricula. The activity uses AutoDock Vina, AutoDockTools, Strawberry Perl, and PyMOL, all of which are free, open-source software. The activity is used to carry out molecular docking of multiple ligands at once and predict the binding energy of hits identified from a high-throughput drug repurposing screen against a target enzyme overexpressed in human tumors. Students analyze their docking results to determine drugs that should go on to further "in vitro" testing based on the predicted noncovalent ligand--protein interactions. This activity serves as an introduction to molecular docking and as a review of intermolecular forces, highlighting their importance in biological fields.

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) as explained in most textbooks predicts that substituents bonded to a central atom in AX[subscript n]E[subscript z][superscript c] species (A = main-group central atom, X = substituent, E = lone pair on central atom, c = charge) will change their X-A-X angles to bend away from the lone pairs. Exceptions have appeared in the literature, commonly arising from steric repulsions between very large substituents and less commonly from electronic factors such as multiple bonding and bond polarization. We have conducted extensive computational studies of hypercoordinate main-group molecules and ions AX[subscript n]E[subscript z][superscript c] and AO[subscript m]X[subscript n]E[subscript z][superscript c], where X = halide, and found that VSEPR-based predictions of such bending for those species containing heavier halides are likely incorrect. Indeed, despite the fact that cases where X = F usually conform to the prediction, we find that IOF[subscript 4][overbar]/XeOF[subscript 4] and IO[subscript 2]F[subscript 2][overbar]/XeO[subscript 2]F[subscript 2] should not. Calculations of the electron localization function indicate that the root cause of the difference is the migration of lone pairs closer to the central atom. We recommend that presentation of VSEPR in general chemistry and inorganic chemistry textbooks be revisited and provide suggested language incorporating this phenomenon.

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are textbook model systems to introduce "Nanomaterials" and "Nanotechnology" to students and laypersons. AuNPs are also suitable materials to raise awareness about the "Green Chemistry" principles. The unique optical and catalytic properties of nanosized gold make it ideal to timely develop hands-on experiments for nanomaterial synthesis requiring only few chemicals and simple equipment, such as a UV-vis spectrophotometer. While the Turkevich-Frens synthesis has been a preferred model system to date due to its simplicity, it still requires access to specific equipment and chemicals, e.g., to heat up the solution at relatively high temperature of ca. 100 °C. Various room temperature syntheses have been reported but suffer from relatively poor size control and/or the need for relatively harmful chemicals such as NaBH[subscript 4]. In contrast, room temperature and surfactant-free syntheses that only require HAuCl[subscript 4], water, an alcohol, such as ethanol, ethylene glycol, or glycerol, and a base at relatively low concentration (<10 mM) are presented and their benefits to develop hands-on experiments are highlighted. The concepts that these simple syntheses can convey cover topics as broad as "Nanotechnology," planning experimental screening of multiple variables, collaborative and open data science, or "Green Chemistry."

This review describes a computational chemistry exercise aimed at enhancing the understanding of upper-division undergraduates in organic chemistry and physical chemistry regarding the structures and aromaticities of cyclobutadiene and cyclooctatetraene. This exercise exposes students to chemical problems that require computational methods as a necessary supplement to chemical intuition, emphasizing the importance of computational work in contemporary chemistry. Specifically, students learn about topics such as building models, geometry optimization, vibrational frequency analysis, and nucleus-independent chemical shift calculations. The exercise effectively improves students' comprehension of the relationship between molecular structure and electronic properties as well as the Hückel and Baird rules of aromaticity and the concept of aromaticity/antiaromaticity/nonaromaticity.

Understanding organic reaction mechanisms can be a challenging task for many undergraduate students, particularly those who are nonchemistry majors, despite the fact that organic chemistry is a mandatory course for numerous science and engineering undergraduate programs. The selectivity of a reaction is largely determined by the distribution and deviation of electron clouds. Nonetheless, the traditional Lewis structure proves inadequate in clearly conveying the distinctions and correlations among sigma bonds, lone pair electrons, and pi bonds. Therefore, a precise and thorough scientific analysis of the structure of organic compounds is of great significance. In light of this, we propose a pioneering method for representing chemical bonds, which not only provides a more lucid portrayal of electron cloud deviation in molecules but also offers a more intuitive depiction of compound structure and reaction mechanisms. According to the proposed novel Lewis structure, we re-explained the mechanism of organic chemical reactions in class. This paper introduces and gives examples according to the types of reactions, including nucleophilic substitution reaction, nucleophilic addition reaction, and electrophilic addition reaction, etc. After class, we conducted a questionnaire survey on the classroom experience and new understanding of reaction. By collecting the results of college students (N = 300) of different majors (N = 5), we found that our method could significantly improved their understanding of reaction mechanisms (90%), help them transfer knowledge (82%), and improve learning efficiency (69%).

Novice chemists often struggle with the highly visual nature of some chemistry topics. To make visually demanding concepts, such as isomerism and stereochemistry, more accessible to students, chemistry instructors have long recommended the use of molecular model kits as visual aids. However, studies pertaining to student model usage have shown that students are unlikely to spontaneously use molecular models to solve problems, even though it was shown that students that actively manipulated the models are more likely to correctly complete visually demanding organic chemistry tasks. Here we report an activity that engages students in molecular model usage while exploring structural isomerism. The activity consists of three sections and is designed to be completed after students have been introduced to structural isomerism. We chose to implement the activity during the first laboratory session after the content introduction. The activity takes approximately 35 min to complete, regardless of virtual or in-person administration. Postactivity surveys from two academic quarters showed that over 70% of students indicated that the modeling tool improved their 3D perception of molecules. However, a smaller percentage of students indicated that they would use the modeling tool as a supplement to their normal study habits.

Acid-base chemistry, and in particular the Lewis acid-base model, is foundational to understanding mechanistic ideas. This is due to the similarity in language chemists use to describe Lewis acid-base reactions and nucleophile-electrophile interactions. The development of artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies has led to the creation of predictive text analysis models that evaluate a large number of open-ended, written formative assessment items. One of these machine learning-based tools developed by the authors evaluates correct Lewis acid-base model use. Bridging the gap between educational research, technological innovation, and instructional practice, we report the development of a web-based, interactive app using R Shiny application technologies that automates scoring of written assessments about acid-base chemistry. Results given by this Shiny app, in the form of on-screen output or a downloadable file, provide instructors with immediate feedback to evaluate acid-base instruction in their organic chemistry courses.

The effectiveness of a formal charge method to draw Lewis structures that was developed by Curnow was studied quantitatively by direct comparison of two groups of students: one of which was taught the new formal charge method and another that was taught a traditional method. Students' marks on a common assessment were found to improve by approximately 5% when taught the formal charge method, and students who used this method were able to identify the correct answer with fewer attempts. These differences were found to be statistically significant.