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Math anxiety (MA) and math performance are generally negatively correlated (Barroso et al., 2021; Namkung et al., 2019). However, the mechanisms underlying this negative association remain unclear. According to the attentional control theory (ACT; Eysenck et al., 2007), anxious individuals experience impaired attentional control during problem solving, which compromises their performance on cognitive tasks. In a sample of 168 elementary and middle school students, the current study used an eye-tracking approach to investigate whether math-anxious students exhibit deficits in their attentional control during a math problem solving task and whether such attentional control deficits account for the negative association between MA and performance on this math task. Consistent with the ACT, we found that students with higher MA were more likely to engage attention to both task-relevant and task-irrelevant distractors during problem solving, and their enhanced attention to these distractors was associated with their impaired performance on the math task. These findings suggest that the MA-related math performance deficit is partly mediated by impaired attentional control, which is indicated by the maladaptive attentional bias toward distracting information during math problem solving.

Relational language is thought to influence mathematical skills. This study examines the association between "relational language" and "number relation skills"--knowledge of cardinal, ordinal, and spatial principles--among 104 U.S. kindergartners (5.9 years; 44% boys; 37% White, 25% Black, 14% Asian, 24% other) in the 2017-2018 academic year. Controlling for general verbal knowledge, executive function, and counting and number identification skills, relational language predicted later number relation skills, specifically number line estimation, [beta] = 0.30. Relational language did not differentially predict number line estimation performance in children with low or high number relation skills, likely due to the restricted ranges of data within subgroups. Number relation skills, specifically number line estimation and number ordering, may be a pathway between relational language and mathematical skills.

When a student struggles with a mathematics task, adults may rephrase or expand initial task instructions to clarify instructions or scaffold problem solving. Yet expanded instructions may not benefit all children, especially children with a mathematics learning disability (MLD). Here, we explore whether expanded instructions differentially affect fractions comparison performance for children with or without MLD. Fifth graders (N = 190) completed two consecutive sets of 24 fraction comparison items, each accompanied by initial or expanded instructions, respectively; and also completed vocabulary, spatial reasoning, verbal working memory, executive function, and number knowledge tasks. Results showed that fraction comparison performance was generally worse following expanded rather than initial instructions, particularly for difficult items or for children with MLD. Fixed ordered regressions showed that the strength of cognitive skills as predictors of performance varied depending on instructions format and MLD status, that the five cognitive predictors collectively accounted for more performance variation with initial compared to expanded instructions, and that vocabulary's relative predictive strength as a single predictor increased when instructions were expanded, but only for children with mathematics difficulties. These findings support the notion that problem features differentially affect children with or without MLD and that not all children benefit from hearing expanded instructions for difficult mathematics tasks.

Children's spontaneous focus on numerosity (SFON) is described as an unprompted tendency that is stable across contexts. The attention to number task (AtN), an experimental forced-choice picture-matching task designed to evaluate select aspects of children's focus on numerosity, may reveal whether task materials can implicitly prompt children to focus on numerosity. In two studies, we replicate earlier findings showing an effect of task context on children's performance on the AtN: When asked to identify one or more matches to a target picture from an array of four options, the frequency with which preschoolers and adults identify a numerosity-based match varies as a function of the features on which the remaining match options are based. We addressed a limitation of the original AtN study by including novel combinations of features as additional trials, with which we continued to demonstrate contextual effects. We also showed that adults seemed more susceptible than children to be primed to attend to numerosity on subsequent trials. Children's focus on numerosity under these experimental conditions was remarkably low. We discuss the implications of these findings for better understanding the SFON construct.

Background: The number line task assesses the ability to estimate numerical magnitudes. People vary greatly in this ability, and this variability has been previously associated with mathematical skills. However, the sources of individual differences in number line estimation and its association with mathematics are not fully understood. Aims: This large-scale genetically sensitive study uses a twin design to estimate the magnitude of the effects of genes and environments on: (1) individual variation in number line estimation and (2) the covariation of number line estimation with mathematics. Samples: We used over 3,000 8- to 16-year-old twins from the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Russia, and a sample of 1,456 8- to 18-year-old singleton Russian students. Methods: Twins were assessed on: (1) estimation of numerical magnitudes using a number line task and (2) two mathematics components: fluency and problem-solving. Results: Results suggest that environments largely drive individual differences in number line estimation. Both genes and environments contribute to different extents to the number line estimation and mathematics correlation, depending on the sample and mathematics component. Conclusions: Taken together, the results suggest that in more heterogeneous school settings, environments may be more important in driving variation in number line estimation and its association with mathematics, whereas in more homogeneous school settings, genetic effects drive the covariation between number line estimation and mathematics. These results are discussed in the light of development and educational settings.

Educational research aims to understand how and why students change over time. With its emphasis on within-person change, latent change score models provide educational researchers with a more general and flexible framework for testing nuanced hypotheses regarding within-person change and between-person differences in within-person change. Models of change are specified and can include static (time-invariant) covariates, as well as dynamic (time-varying) covariates. Latent change score modeling further allows for the testing of more complex research questions about dynamic associations between 2 or more variables across time. We describe latent change score models for a single repeatedly measured variable and for multiple repeatedly measured variables, and we illustrate their use with longitudinal data on mathematics ability and visual motor integration. The results indicate that visual motor integration is a potential leading indicator of subsequent changes in mathematics ability.

Rapid automatized naming (RAN) is widely used to identify reading disabilities (RD) and has recently been considered a potential predictor of risk for mathematics learning disabilities (MLD). Here we longitudinally examine RAN performance from Grades K to 8, to view how growth on RAN response time differs for children with RD versus MLD. Across all participants, there was significant stability of RAN performance for all three subtests. For all three subtests, there was significant between-child variability in response times (RTs) at kindergarten and Grade 8; for select combinations of subtests, there was also between-child variability in difference scores over time. Relative to typically achieving peers, children with MLD or RD were slower on all three subtests at kindergarten, but these deficits were most pronounced for children with MLD versus RD at kindergarten and more persistent through Grade 8 for children with RD. RAN numbers and letters performance was closely related in the RD group, more so than in the MLD group, despite deficits on both subtests across groups. Our findings indicate that empirically guided modifications of RAN are needed for extending its use for evaluating risk for MLD.

Individuals with Mathematics Learning Disabilities have persistent mathematics underperformance but vary with respect to their cognitive profiles. The present study examined mathematics ability and achievement, and associated mathematics-specific numerical skills and domain-general cognitive abilities, in young children with Turner syndrome compared to their matched peers. We utilized two independent peer groups so that group comparisons would account for verbal skills, a hypothesized strength of girls with Turner syndrome, and nonsymbolic magnitude comparison skills, a hypothesized difference of girls with Turner syndrome. This individual matching approach afforded characterization of mathematics profiles of girls with Turner syndrome and girls without Turner syndrome that share potential key features of the Turner syndrome phenotype. Results indicated differences in mathematics ability and nonsymbolic magnitude comparison tasks between girls with Turner syndrome and peers with similar levels of verbal skill. Mathematics ability and mathematics achievement scores of girls with Turner syndrome did not differ significantly from their peers with similar levels of accuracy on a nonsymbolic magnitude comparison task. Cognitive correlates of mathematics outcomes showed disparate patterns across groups. These quantitative and qualitative differences across profiles enhance our understanding of variation in mathematics ability in early childhood and inform how mathematics skills develop in young children with or without Turner syndrome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does knowing when mental arithmetic judgments are right—and when they are wrong—lead to more accurate judgments over time? We hypothesize that the successful detection of errors (and avoidance of false alarms) may contribute to the development of mental arithmetic performance. Insight into error detection abilities can be gained by examining the “calibration” of mental arithmetic judgments—that is, the alignment between confidence in judgments and the accuracy of those judgments. Calibration may be viewed as a measure of metacognitive monitoring ability. We conducted a developmental longitudinal investigation of the relationship between the calibration of children's mental arithmetic judgments and their performance on a mental arithmetic task. Annually between Grades 5 and 8, children completed a problem verification task in which they rapidly judged the accuracy of arithmetic expressions (e.g., 25+50 = 75) and rated their confidence in each judgment. Results showed that calibration was strongly related to concurrent mental arithmetic performance, that calibration continued to develop even as mental arithmetic accuracy approached ceiling, that poor calibration distinguished children with mathematics learning disability from both low and typically achieving children, and that better calibration in Grade 5 predicted larger gains in mental arithmetic accuracy between Grades 5 and 8. We propose that good calibration supports the implementation of cognitive control, leading to long-term improvement in mental arithmetic accuracy. Because mental arithmetic “fluency” is critical for higher-level mathematics competence, calibration of confidence in mental arithmetic judgments may represent a novel and important developmental predictor of future mathematics performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interval estimates are commonly used to descriptively communicate the degree of uncertainty in numerical values. Conventionally, low alpha levels (e.g., .05) ensure a high probability of capturing the target value between interval endpoints. Here, we test whether alpha levels and individual differences in numeracy influence distributional inferences. In the reported experiment, participants received prediction intervals for fictitious towns' annual rainfall totals (assuming approximately normal distributions). Then, participants estimated probabilities that future totals would be captured within varying margins about the mean, indicating the approximate shapes of their inferred probability distributions. Results showed that low alpha levels (vs. moderate levels; e.g., .25) more frequently led to inferences of over-dispersed approximately normal distributions or approximately uniform distributions, reducing estimate accuracy. Highly numerate participants made more accurate estimates overall, but were more prone to inferring approximately uniform distributions. These findings have important implications for presenting interval estimates to various audiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Do individual differences in the brain mechanisms for arithmetic underlie variability in high school mathematical competence? Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we correlated brain responses to single digit calculation with standard scores on the Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) math subtest in high school seniors. PSAT math scores, while controlling for PSAT Critical Reading scores, correlated positively with calculation activation in the left supramarginal gyrus and bilateral anterior cingulate cortex, brain regions known to be engaged during arithmetic fact retrieval. At the same time, greater activation in the right intraparietal sulcus during calculation, a region established to be involved in numerical quantity processing, was related to lower PSAT math scores. These data reveal that the relative engagement of brain mechanisms associated with procedural versus memory-based calculation of single-digit arithmetic problems is related to high school level mathematical competence, highlighting the fundamental role that mental arithmetic fluency plays in the acquisition of higher-level mathematical competence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the attitude of primary school care children towards the learning the mathematics as a subject and it also analyses the comments of the children on math and reading. It mentions that children attributed more difficulty in mathematics studies than to reading and the girls has provided more specific definitions of math than boys. It also mentions that children with mathematics learning disability has provided less specific definition.

The present study focuses on math and related skills among 32 girls with fragile X (n = 14) or Turner (n = 18) syndrome during late elementary school. Performance in each syndrome group was assessed relative to Full Scale IQ-matched comparison groups of girls from the general population (n = 32 and n = 89 for fragile X syndrome and Turner syndrome, respectively). Differences between girls with fragile X and their comparison group emerged on untimed arithmetic calculations, mastery of counting skills, and arithmetic problem verification accuracy. Relative to girls in the comparison group, girls with Turner syndrome did not differ on untimed arithmetic calculations or problem verification accuracy, but they had limited mastery of counting skills and longer response times to complete the problem verification task. Girls with fragile X or Turner syndrome also differed from their respective comparison groups on math-related abilities, including visual-spatial, working memory, and reading skills, and the associations between math and those related skills. Together, these findings support the notion that difficulty with math and related skills among girls with fragile X or Turner syndrome continues into late elementary school and that the profile of math and related skill difficulty distinguishes the two syndrome groups from each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers of mathematics learning disability (MLD) commonly use cutoff scores to determine which participants have MLD. Some researchers apply more restrictive cutoffs than others (e.g., performance below the 10th vs. below the 35th percentile). Different cutoffs may lead to groups of children that differ in their profile of math and related skills, including reading, visual--spatial, and working memory skills. The present study assesses the characteristics of children with MLD based on varying MLD definitions of math performance either below the 10th percentile (n = 22) or between the 11th and 25th percentile (n = 42) on the Test of Early Math Ability, second edition (TEMA-2). Initial starting levels and growth rates for math and related skills were examined in these two MLD groups relative to a comparison group (n = 146) whose TEMA-2 performance exceeded the 25th percentile. Between kindergarten and third grade, differences emerged in the starting level and growth rate, suggesting qualitative differences among the three groups. Despite some similarities, qualitative group differences were also observed in the profiles of math-related skills across groups. These results highlight differences in student characteristics based on the definition of MLD and illustrate the value of examining skill areas associated with math performance in addition to math performance itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to examine the effects of math anxiety and perfectionism on math performance, under timed testing conditions, among mathematically gifted sixth graders. We found that participants had worse math performance during timed versus untimed testing, but this difference was statistically significant only when the timed condition preceded the untimed condition. We also found that children with higher levels of either math anxiety or perfectionism had a smaller performance discrepancy during timed versus untimed testing, relative to children with lower levels of math anxiety or perfectionism. There were no statistically significant gender differences in overall test performance, nor in levels of math anxiety or perfectionism; however, the difference between performance on timed and untimed math testing was statistically significant for girls, but not for boys. Implications for educators are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fragile X and Turner syndromes are associated with risk of atypical social function. We examined language use, including normal and atypical speech, during initial social interactions among participants engaged in a brief social role play with an unfamiliar adult. There were 27 participants with Turner syndrome, 20 with fragile X syndrome and 28 in an age-matched comparison group. Females with fragile X did not exhibit more abnormal language, but exhibited less of what is typical during initial interactions. Overall rates of dysfluencies did not differ, although females with fragile X made more phrase repetitions. Females with Turner syndrome had no language use abnormalities. Our findings suggest that language use may influence social function in females with fragile X syndrome and that such language characteristics may be observed in the context of brief encounters with an unfamiliar adult. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metacognition refers to knowledge about one's own cognition. The present study was designed to assess metacognitive skills that either precede or follow task engagement, rather than the processes that occur during a task. Specifically, we examined prediction and evaluation skills among children with ( n= 17) or without ( n= 179) mathematics learning disability (MLD), from grades 2 to 4. Children were asked to predict which of several math problems they could solve correctly; later, they were asked to solve those problems. They were asked to evaluate whether their solution to each of another set of problems was correct. Children's ability to evaluate their answers to math problems improved from grade 2 to grade 3, whereas there was no change over time in the children's ability to predict which problems they could solve correctly. Children with MLD were less accurate than children without MLD in evaluating both their correct and incorrect solutions, and they were less accurate at predicting which problems they could solve correctly. However, children with MLD were as accurate as their peers in correctly predicting that they could not solve specific math problems. The findings have implications for the usefulness of children's self-review during mathematics problem solving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine executive function (EF) skills in girls with fragile X or Turner syndrome, using the Contingency Naming Test (CNT). The CNT is a Stroop-like task involving a 1- or 2-attribute contingency rule. We predicted that girls with fragile X would make errors reflecting poor cognitive flexibility and working memory limitations. We predicted that girls with Turner syndrome would have sufficient cognitive flexibility to perform the CNT accurately, but would have difficulty with verbal inhibition and would thus make more self-corrections than girls in a comparison group. The hypotheses were partially supported: relative to their Full Scale IQ-matched comparison group, girls with fragile X or Turner syndrome were slower on the warm-up naming task; girls with fragile X made more errors on the 1-attribute task, and girls with Turner syndrome were less efficient on both the 1- and 2-attribute tasks, without making more self-corrections. These results support previous findings of executive dysfunction associated with fragile X or Turner syndrome. The results suggest that both low IQ and fragile X status contribute to working memory limitations in girls with fragile X and that EF inefficiency in girls with Turner syndrome is due to both working memory limitations and slower response times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gersten, Jordan, and Flojo (in this series) review their research on math difficulties, with an emphasis on applying current knowledge to inform practices of early identification and intervention. On a practical level, educators are in dire need of empirically based screening and intervention tools. From a scientific perspective, it is important to recognize the need to clearly define what we seek to identify and remediate, and to acknowledge that we are currently far from achieving this goal despite recent advances in the field. Among the studies reviewed by Gersten et al., as well as other studies by several other researchers, there is much variability in how mathematics difficulties are defined and measured, and even in the terms used to refer to them. I address the degree of consensus and controversy currently characterizing the state of math learning disabilities research, with an emphasis on the usefulness of a developmental perspective in appraising this young field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this observational study, influences on research enrollment were examined in the context of an educational research study. Recruitment materials were sent to parents of kindergartners in one of 23 classes across 7 public schools, as an invitation to enroll in a longitudinal study. For the 7 classes from 2 of the schools, the school principal prepared a cover letter as an introduction to the educational study. Inclusion of this cover letter was associated with a significantly swifter pace of recruitment and, to a lesser degree, with an increase in the number of children enrolled. However, when potential confounding variables were controlled, no significant increase in final enrollment count was associated with including the cover letter. Thus, inclusion of a cover letter from the school principal did not appear to dramatically increase the number of parents who elected to enroll their child in the educational study, and it did significantly decrease (by 6 weeks) the number of weeks required to achieve final enrollment counts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fragile X syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder that results from a single gene mutation on the X chromosome. The purpose of this review is to summarize key advances made in understanding the fragile X premutation gene seen in carriers and the full mutation gene seen in persons with the syndrome. DNA testing has replaced cytogenetic testing as the primary method for identification of fragile X, although the efficacy of protein level screening is being explored. The premutation is associated with no effects, although there is evidence of physical effects—primarily premature menopause and mild outward features of the fragile X syndrome–among premutation carriers. There is much controversy regarding premutation effects on psychological development. The few experimental studies carried out to date do not suggest noticeable or significant effects. One challenge in addressing this controversy is the sometimes ambiguous differentiation between premutation and full mutation genes. There is a well-established yet highly variable phenotype of the full mutation. Research from this decade has helped to address specific aspects of this phenotype, including the early course of its development in males, the influence of home and family environments, the nature of social difficulties and autistic features seen in boys and girls with fragile X, and the potential role of hyperarousal or hyper-reactivity. Studies in these areas, and on the role of FMR protein, will contribute towards ongoing advances in our understanding of fragile X syndrome and its mechanisms. The variability in physical, social, and cognitive features, as described in this review, is one that prohibits clear-cut screening guidelines designed to avoid high rates of both false positives and false negatives. Results from recent studies indicate the need to consider behavioral features in selecting candidates for fragile X screening. MRDD Research Reviews 2000;6:96-106. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effectiveness of genetic screening study procedures was examined. One analysis was designed to explore whether having a genetic screening study simply introduced by a physician who had just completed a child's evaluation (vs. introduced by an unfamiliar individual) influenced whether the child's parent enrolled the child in the study. Also examined were explanations for nonenrollment and final enrollment decisions among individuals initially uncertain about enrollment. The primary finding was that a physician's introduction to the genetic screening study was associated with a 17% increase in enrollment, and with a 9.9% greater rate of enrollment overall. The rate of increase was greatest among physicians who were most consistent with introducing the screening study. Initially undecided individuals comprised 14% of the final sample. Many parents who chose not to participate felt that the research study was not important. A smaller percentage of parents chose not to enroll in the genetic study because of discomfort with genetic testing. The findings have important implications for designing effective procedures for prevalence research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]