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Fast capacity estimation for retired batteries is necessary when batteries are recycled for echelon utilization. Here, a fast capacity estimation method is proposed for retired LiFePO4 battery. First, a full survey of battery pack and cells degradation after a long period of service is studied. Then the filtered ICA is used to study degradation variation phenomenon of retired batteries, the relationship between IC curve feature and remaining capacity was studied. Finally, a fast capacity estimation using incremental capacity and Gaussian process regression is proposed. Our results show high efficiency and accuracy of the proposed method.

The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is an important way to reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The city of Shenzhen, in southern China, has focused on developing policies to encourage EV implementation over the past decade and now has the most EVs of any city in the world, including the largest e‐bus and e‐taxi fleets. This paper reviews Shenzhen's innovative incentive policies and business models with respect to the potential for other cities and regions to learn from the city's experiences. Subsidies for the purchase and use of EVs, the construction of charging facilities, and the provision of services followed an inverse U‐shaped trend that initially rose to encourage early adoption before decreasing as the market matured. Additional incentives included preferential vehicle licensing, parking privileges, and road access. Furthermore, the city adopted a business model that incentivized cooperation between third‐party financial institutions, EV manufacturers, and charging facility operators to reduce the initial financial burden and risk of EV adoption by pooling purchasing power through leasing and vehicle sharing while disassociating vehicle and battery maintenance. Although Shenzhen's experience has unique aspects that cannot easily be replicated, such as a strong financial position of the government, it offers two important lessons for other cities around the globe: (a) incentivize the whole EV value chain in order to avoid bottlenecks and (b) use innovative business models that mobilize both public and private resources by distributing both risks and rewards. This article is categorized under:Energy and Transport > Economics and PolicyEnergy and Transport > Economics and PolicyEnergy Research and Innovation > Climate and Environment [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Water for energy sector in China's two biggest megalopolises was analyzed. • Energy sector in Jing-Jin-Ji had 2.41 km3 of water withdrawal footprint in 2010. • Energy sector in Yangtze Delta had 9.59 km3 of water withdrawal footprint in 2010. • Water consumption footprint was 848.06 and 973.91million m3 respectively. • Jing-Jin-Ji had much larger external water footprint than Yangtze Delta. Abstract Using a consumption-based Multi-Regional Input-Output (MRIO) model, we investigate the distinctive characteristics, self-efficiency or external dependency, of energy demand's water footprint in China's two biggest and fastest developing megalopolises. We find that energy demand water footprint in the Jing-Jin-Ji and the Yangtze Delta amounted to 2.41 and 9.59 billion m³of water withdrawal respectively in 2010, of which 848.06 and 973.91 million m³was consumed. Among all energy products, electricity contributed the largest share to the energy sector's water footprint in both regions. The sectoral distribution of water footprint in the upstream supply chain differed by region. Most significantly, the agricultural sector accounted for more than 30% of water consumption footprint. In addition to water used locally, final energy demands in these two regions induced external water footprint beyond their administrative boundaries. The Jing-Jin-Ji region's energy sector had a smaller water footprint compared to the water-abundant Yangtze Delta region. However, external water footprint occupied a larger proportion in the former. Such divergence can be attributed to the distinctive water endowments and water-using technologies utilized in their respective energy sectors. Bespoke urban governance and policies tailored to local resource and technology portfolios are recommended for different urban agglomeration energy and water flows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In China, vehicle electrification is developed as a way to decouple people's increasing demand for on-road transport and concerns for adverse environmental impacts. Replacing conventional fuel with electricity not only yields impacts on air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, but also on water resources. This study addresses such impacts for the first time. Based on China's existing plans, we expect China's future electric vehicles will grow from 5 million in 2020 to 80 million in 2030, requiring 47 to 335 TWh of electricity supplies respectively. In order to produce such amount of electricity, under a baseline scenario, 42.60 million m³ and 1.09 billion m³ of water is projected to be consumed and withdrawn in 2020, respectively, which are expected to grow to 324.45 million and 8.56 billion m³ in 2030. Deploying renewable energies offers considerable potentials cutting electric vehicles' indirect impacts on water resources by more than 20% as their productions require less water inputs than coal-fired power plants. Changing cooling technologies' impacts differ by regions, increasing water consumption in southern regions while reducing water consumption in the north. However, if water consumption avoided from avoiding conventional fuel productions is taken into account, compared to the counterfactual scenario where the same number of traditional vehicles will be deployed, future electric vehicles in China will lead to net decreases of 19.3, 64.3 and 89.7 million m³ of scarce water consumption nationally under baseline, high renewable and cooling technology change scenarios in the electric power sector respectively. Highlights • Electric vehicle (EV) amount is expected to reach 80 million in China by 2030. • From 2020 to 2030, electricity demand by China's EVs will increase by 6 times to be 335 TWh. • 8.56 billion m³ of water will be withdrawn by electricity generation for EV in 2030. • EV rising can save water in North China by avoiding oil production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Both water depletion and pollution by coal-fired power generation are quantified. • Petroleum pollutant determines the life cycle grey water footprint. • Water pollution mostly occurs in the fuel supply sector. • The grey water footprint was reduced by 49% from 2002 to 2012. Abstract In the present study, both water depletion and degradation in the life cycle of power generation at coal-fired power plants in China are quantified using a mixed-unit input-output model. National life cycle Withdrawal, Blue and Grey water footprint (WF) of thermal power production in China are estimated to be 35.46, 2.14 and 17.67 m3 per MWh of electricity produced, respectively. Those three types of life cycle WFs experienced significant reductions from 2002 to 2012 due to improved technologies such as water saving and wastewater treatment. Although Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) pollutant had the largest discharge amount in the life cycle process of electricity generation, petroleum pollutant that was mostly discharged from coal production determined the Grey WF because of its lower permissible concentration. The spatial distribution of scarce WFs, incorporating regional water stresses, is also studied at the provincial level to identify the impacts of thermal power generation on regional water scarcities. Scarce water consumption was concentrated in northern China while scarce water was predominantly withdrawn in eastern China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water consumption in thermoelectric and hydropower plants in China increased from 1.6 and 6.1 billion m 3 , respectively, to 3.8 and 14.6 billion m 3 from 2002 to 2010. Using the concept of virtual water, we attribute to different electricity users the total water consumption by the electric power sector. From 2002 to 2010, virtual water embodied in the final consumption of electricity (hereinafter referred to as VWEF) increased from 1.90 to 7.35 billion m 3 , whilst virtual water in electricity used by industries (hereinafter referred to as VWEI) increased from 5.82 to 11.13 billion m 3 . The inter-provincial virtual water trades as a result of spatial mismatch of electricity production and consumption are quantified. Nearly half (47.5% in 2010) of the physical water inputs into the power sector were virtually transferred across provincial boundaries in the form of virtual water embodied in the electricity produced, mainly from provinces in northeast, central and south China to those in east and north China. Until 2030, VWEF and VWEI are likely to increase from 5.27 and 14.89 billion m 3 to 7.19 and 20.33 billion m 3 , respectively. Climate change mitigation and water conservation measures in the power sector may help to relieve the regional pressures on water resources imposed by the power sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of metropolitan cities inevitably relies on natural resources beyond their boundary through trade of materials and products, particularly within the same urban agglomeration. Meanwhile trade facilitates the optimization of resource allocations under scarcity, among cities and sectors, and therefore generates economic gains. This study constructs an economic evaluation model combining a Multi-Regional Input-Output model and a Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to quantify the economic impacts of virtual water trades among the 13 cities in the JingJinJi region (China national capital area), one of the most water-scarce regions in China. We found that the total virtual water trade among the 13 cities amounted to 927 million m3 in 2012, among which agricultural sectors contributed 90% while the industrial sector and service sector together made up the remaining 10%. While Beijing and Tianjin are the main virtual water importers, importing respectively 300.48 and 226.92 million m3 in 2012, Shijiazhuang was the largest virtual water exporter, exporting 173.29 million m3 virtual water in the same year. Due to their more advanced economic conditions, Beijing and Tianjin also have the highest shadow prices of water, at respectively 912.21 and 831.86 CNY per m3, compared to a range of 79.31 to 263.03 CNY per m3 in cities in Hebei. Virtual water flows from cities in Hebei to Beijing and Tianjin thus generate economic gains. It is estimated that virtual water trades in the JingJinJi region have generated a net economic gain of 403.62 billion CNY in 2012, particularly owing to trades of agricultural products from Shijiazhuang to Beijing and Tianjin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North China Grid has the highest proportion of fossil fuel-based electricity generation in China and also suffers from severe water scarcity issues. This study uses a multi-objective optimization model to explore future configurations of generating and cooling technologies of the electric power sector in the North China Grid subject to constraints imposed by existing policies on water conservation and carbon reduction in 2030. Our findings highlight that the current carbon reduction commitments of China do not have significant impacts on the North China Grid's electric power sector development while policies in the water sector generate much larger impacts. Imposing water constraint according to the 'Three Red Line' Policy requires increasing utilization of wind power and air cooling systems, which simultaneously increases economic cost and carbon emissions compared to the business as usual scenario. Imposing enhanced carbon emission and water consumption constraints reap the co-benefits of carbon reduction and water conservation by increasing the proportion of solar PV generation to 8.21%, which increases the unit electricity cost from RMB 0.82 per kWh to RMB 1.37 per kWh. In 2030, electricity generation in the North China Grid generates 1599.88 to 1690.89 million tons (Mt) of carbon emissions under different scenarios whereas imposing water constraint reduces water consumption from 3.34 billion m3 to 1.94 billion m3. Unlabelled Image • China's current carbon targets do not affect the development of the North China Grid. • Water sector policies have much larger impacts on the North China Grid. • Capping water use increases carbon emissions from the North China Grid. • Imposing both water and carbon constraints can realize co-benefits but at higher costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urbanization is accompanied by growing household consumption and changing consumption patterns, with both having impacts on the life-cycle water pollution generated. This study uses the indicator of grey water footprint (GWF) within an Input-Output framework to examine the decadal change from 2002 to 2017 of the life-cycle water pollution change for household consumption in China, where rapid urbanization has particularly posed looming environmental challenges. Against the background of enlarging inequality, the results also shed light on the impacts of households within different income groups. From 2002 to 2017, GWF required by urban household consumption has increased significantly from 1586 to 2195 km3 while that for rural households have decreased slightly from 1139 to 964 km3 during the same period. Total Nitrogen required the largest GWF throughout the whole period and throughout all different income groups. Food consumption dominated the GWF for household consumption. However, the share of GWF for food consumption decreases with income increases, from 83% for extremely poor rural households to 71% for very rich urban households in 2012. Urbanites on average require higher GWF for their consumption than their rural counterparts. An average person from the highest income rural households required 2033 m3 GWF for household consumption, which is higher than a person from a very poor urban household (1685 m3) but lower than that of a person from poor urban household (2149 m3). While household consumption volume increase has been the primary driver for GWF increase, pollution intensity reduction has offset such impacts. Household consumption pattern change's impacts differ by household income and by pollutant considered. Unlabelled Image • This study assesses the household consumption's GWF in China from 2002 to 2017. • Total nitrogen determines the grey water footprint (GWF) of household consumption. • The change of household consumption's GWF was greatly driven by increasing consumption expenditure. • The increasing GWF from the poor to the rich is retarded by the changing consumption pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions generated at urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are gaining increasing appreciation. Improving upon the commonly used Process-Based Life-Cycle Analysis (PLCA) and Environmentally-Extended Life-Cycle Analysis (EIO-LCA) models, we construct a Hybrid Life Cycle Analysis (HLCA) model and quantify both direct and indirect GHG emissions at the operational stage of WWTPs in Shenzhen, one of the fastest urbanizing cities in the world. Data are collected from 26 wastewater treatment plants in Shenzhen, out of all 32, covering 5 commonly used wastewater treatment technologies in China, i.e. Sequencing Batch Reactor, Oxidation Ditch, Biological Filter, AAO-MBR and AAO. The results show that WWTPs using AAO-MBR technology have the highest GHG emission intensity, averaging 0.79 tons per m3, primarily due to its large electricity intensity required. WWTPs using other technologies emit 0.27 to 0.39 tons of GHGs per m3 of wastewater treated. GHG emissions associated with electricity use occupy the largest share, ranging from 65 to 75%. Therefore, transforming the energy structure of the electric power sector to low-carbon sources can reduce WWTPs operational GHG emissions. In total, GHG emissions from Shenzhen's urban wastewater sector have increased from below 0.5 million tons in 2012 to over 0.6 million tons in 2017. Inter-model comparison shows that EIO-LCA substantially underestimates the urban wastewater sector's GHG emissions using the water sector's average parameters while PLCA also results in minor underestimations due the omission of indirect emissions in the production stage of chemicals and other material inputs. Unlabelled Image • Hybrid Life Cycle analysis (HLCA) is constructed to evaluate WWTP's GHG emissions. • GHG from WWTPs in Shenzhen grew from below 0.5 Mt. in 2012 to over 0.6 Mt. in 2017. • Upstream electricity production occupies 65 to 75% of the operational GHG of WWTPs. • AAO-MBR has the highest GHG emission intensity, twice as that of others. • Process-based and EIO LCA both underestimates WWTP's operational GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dietary improvement not only benefits human health conditions, but also offers the potential to reduce the human food system's environmental impact. With the world's largest population and people's bourgeoning lifestyle, China's food system is set to impose increasing pressures on the environment. We evaluated the minimum environmental footprints, including carbon footprint (CF), water footprint (WF) and ecological footprint (EF), of China's food systems into 2100. The minimum footprints of healthy eating are informative to policymakers when setting the environmental constraints for food systems. The results demonstrate that the minimum CF, WF and EF all increase in the near future and peak around 2030 to 2035, under different population scenarios. After the peak, population decline and aging result in decreasing trends of all environmental footprints until 2100. Considering age-gender specific nutritional needs, the food demands of teenagers in the 14–17 year group require the largest environmental footprints across the three indicators. Moreover, men's nutritional needs also lead to larger environmental footprints than women's across all age groups. By 2100, the minimum CF, WF and EF associated with China's food systems range from 616 to 899 million tons, 654 to 953 km3 and 6513 to 9500 billion gm2 respectively under different population scenarios. This study builds a bridge between demography and the environmental footprints of diet and demonstrates that the minimum environmental footprints of diet could vary by up to 46% in 2100 under different demographic scenarios. The results suggest to policymakers that setting the environmental constraints of food systems should be integrated with the planning of a future demographic path. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies have demonstrated the continuum of cooperation on transboundary rivers, but have largely focused on government to government (Track 1) cooperation and formal diplomacy. Formal arrangements like treaties, agreements, joint mechanisms, joint bodies, joint commissions (e.g., river basin organizations), etc., fall within the scope of transboundary waters cooperation. However, in some transboundary rivers, often due to political constraints, Track 1 cooperation might not be a feasible option. When governmental cooperation is a non-starter, effort and progress made outside the government domain through informal dialogues can play a significant role. It is therefore important to re-examine the definition of cooperation as it applies to international rivers, and potentially to broaden its scope. Such an examination raises important questions: What does international cooperation in this context actually mean? Is it formal (Track 1) cooperation related to sharing of water, data, and information only, or does it have a broader meaning? What, precisely, can be the entry point for such cooperation? Are informal transboundary dialogues and water diplomacy itself an entry point for cooperation on international rivers? This paper aimed to answer these critical questions drawing from the "Brahmaputra Dialogue" project initiated in 2013 under the South Asia Water Initiative (SAWI), which involved the four riparian countries of the Brahmaputra Basin. Several important focal points of cooperation emerged through this sustained dialogue, which went beyond sharing hydrological data or signing a basin-level treaty, broadening the definition of "cooperation". The paper, bringing evidence from the dialogue, argues that the Brahmaputra Dialogue process has led to a broader understanding of cooperation among basin stakeholders, which could influence water resource management of the basin in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the proliferation of electric vehicles (EV), large amounts of retired batteries need to be disposed, which poses emerging waste management challenges. Remanufacturing LIBs with materials recycled from used batteries is gaining increasing appreciation. Its environmental and economic benefits are still controversial and merit further examinations. This paper employs a life-cycle model and a process-based cost model to evaluate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water consumption, and the related costs of remanufacturing LIBs within the context of China, which is the biggest EV producer. Four types of LIBs, i.e. NCM 111 , NCM 622 , NCM 811 and NCA, and three different recycling methods, i.e. Pyrometallurgical Recycling (PR), Hydrometallurgical Recycling (HR), and Direct Physical Recycling (DPR) are analyzed. The environmental impacts of remanufacturing LIBs are assessed at both national and provincial levels. Results show that compared with manufacturing LIBs with virgin materials, remanufacturing LIBs can significantly reduce GHG emissions, water consumption, and production costs. Among the three recycling methods, DPR has the biggest potentials for reducing GHG emissions, water consumption, and manufacturing costs with 29.27%–38.15%, 30.07%–41.19%, and 25.61%–36.63% reduction, depending on the different types of LIBs. Regarding battery technologies, remanufacturing NCM 111 cell with DPR induces the least negative environmental impacts. Sensitivity analyses show that there are still large profit margins for remanufacturing LIBs with DPR process to bear the used LIB purchase price increase. Potential water-carbon conflicts are demonstrated for developing LIB remanufacturing industry due to different provincial electric power portfolios, which should be considered in future industry planning. [Display omitted] Environmental impacts and economic costs of remanufacturing EV LIBs are evaluated Direct physical recycling cuts manufacturing cost by 25.6–36.6% Direct physical recycling reduces GHG emission by 29.3–38.2% Direct physical recycling reduces water consumption by 30.1–41.2% Provincial analysis reveals potential water-carbon conflicts in remanufacturing LIBs [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]