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Pocket gophers provide vital ecosystem services; however, species like the southeastern pocket gopher (Geomys pinetis), endemic to the southeastern United States, are declining. Long-term conservation of this species requires greater understanding of its habitat characteristics. Our objective here was to determine habitat features associated with southeastern pocket gopher occurrence at the local (100 ha) and home-range (0.09 ha) scales. We assessed occurrence and carried out vegetation surveys at 177 sites across the species’ range during the growing season (March–September) 2016–2017. At the local scale, we found a negative relationship between occurrence and groundcover height and a quadratic relationship with canopy closure. At the home-range scale, occurrence was positively related to grass groundcover and had a quadratic relationship with canopy closure. Restoration of southeastern pocket gopher habitat should focus on creating or maintaining areas with intermediate canopy (~45–55%) and an understory dominated by grasses and forbs.

An animal’s pelage, feather, or skin color can serve a variety of functions, so it is important to have multiple standardized methods for measuring color. One of the most common and reliable methods for measuring animal coloration is the use of standardized digital photographs of animals. New technology in the form of a commercially available handheld digital color sensor could provide an alternative to photography-based animal color measurements. To determine whether a digital color sensor could be used to measure animal coloration, we tested the ability of a digital color sensor to measure coloration of mammalian, avian, and lepidopteran museums specimens. We compared results from the sensor to measurements taken using traditional photography methods. Our study yielded significant differences between photography-based and digital color sensor measurements of brightness (light to dark) and colors along the green to red spectrum. There was no difference between photographs and the digital color sensor measurements for colors along the blue to yellow spectrum. The average difference in recorded color (ΔE) by the 2 methods was above the threshold at which humans can perceive a difference. There were significant correlations between the sensor and photographs for all measurements indicating that the sensor is an effective animal coloration measuring tool. However, the sensor’s small aperture and narrow light spectrum range designed for human-vision limit its value for ecological research. We discuss the conditions in which a digital color sensor can be an effective tool for measuring animal coloration in both laboratory settings and in the field.

Predator communities are changing worldwide: large carnivores are declining while mesocarnivores (medium-sized mammalian predators) are increasing in number and ecological influence. Predator choice of prey is not random and different predators select prey with different characteristics. Changes in predator communities can change predation patterns experienced by prey. Little is known about how mesocarnivore communities influence prey morphology. We used 14 years of mark-recapture data to investigate how mesocarnivore exclusion affected body mass of hispid cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus). Finding adult male cotton rats were 9% heavier with mesocarnivore exclusion, we developed hypotheses to explain this observation. Greater adult male body mass in exclosures resulted from: (1) a non-significant trend of increased survival of large males, (2) faster juvenile male growth during the fall and a similar non-significant trend among adult males, and (3) spatial partitioning by size among males. Taxa-specific predation rates (i.e., rates of predation by snakes, raptors, or mesocarnivores) did not differ among male body mass classes. Mesocarnivores disproportionately preyed on large females while raptors targeted small females, but female body mass was not influenced by mesocarnivore exclusion. Changes in predator communities can result in multiple small effects that collectively result in large differences in prey morphology.

An animal's perception of predation risk varies across a heterogeneous landscape. Animals rely on indirect cues in the environment, including availability of protective cover, openness of sightlines and distance to refuge to evaluate potential predation risk. Interactions between the indirect cues that influence an animal's perception of predation risk are poorly understood, especially for prey at risk of avian and terrestrial predation. We conducted a giving-up density (GUD) study to examine how interactions between terrestrial predator presence, ceiling (canopy) cover, wall (shrub/grass) cover and distance to nearest tree influence fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, risk perception. The GUD indicates an animal's perceived predation risk, such that increased GUD (decreased foraging) corresponds to greater perceived risk. We found that fox squirrels perceived cues of predation risk in response to a synergistic interaction between ceiling and wall cover. In open canopy areas, fox squirrels increased GUD where there was also increased wall cover. However, fox squirrels reduced GUD in closed canopy areas where there was also increased wall cover. We attribute the differential effects of wall cover depending on ceiling cover to the effectiveness of open sightlines in decreasing predation risk from avian or terrestrial predators. Our study shows that the effect of vegetation structure on prey risk perception and antipredator behaviour depends on the relative risk posed by avian and terrestrial predators that use different hunting strategies.

Open pine ecosystems of the southern United States are a conservation priority for many agencies, organizations, and private landowners. These woodlands, characterized by moderately-stocked overstories, low cover of midstory, and grass-dominated herbaceous groundcover, provide important habitat for a suite of rare and declining wildlife species. To provide guidance for land managers engaged in habitat restoration in open pine ecosystems, ranges of desired conditions for elements of vegetation structure have been developed using literature survey and expert opinion. We compared empirical data on habitat occupancy for 17 wildlife species from second-growth longleaf pine woodlands in southwestern Georgia with recommended ranges for basal area (BA) of all pine, BA of pine ≥ 35.5 cm dbh, percent canopy cover, percent herbaceous cover, and percent shrub cover. Vegetation data were taken from 864 monitoring plots and Mahalanobis distance models were used to develop habitat suitability indices from the wildlife data. Recommendations for shrub cover and BA of pines ≥ 35.5 cm fit well with model predictions for all wildlife species. However, mean BA of all pines at sites used by wildlife were at the low end of the recommended range. Herbaceous cover at sites used by wildlife was well below the recommended range, whereas canopy cover was well above recommendations, suggesting these ranges should be expanded. These modifications could provide managers of open pine ecosystems greater flexibility, allowing them to incorporate a broader suite of objectives in their management while still providing habitat for wildlife species of concern. Moreover, our models suggest that monitoring presence of open pine indicator bird species may be an efficient method to assess restoration or management progress of open canopy pine systems.

We observed a series of long-distance movements by an adult male Sciurus niger (Eastern Fox Squirrel). The squirrel traveled 1040 m between 25 May and 27 May, and ≥503 m on 5 separate occasions between 29 April and 25 May 2017. The individual traveled between experimental foraging sites and was photographed by remote cameras placed at each site. The time it took to travel between sites varied from 1 h and 5 min to 5 h and 7 min. The distance this squirrel regularly traveled is approximately the diameter of an average Eastern Fox Squirrel home range in the southeastern United States.

Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests rely on prescribed fire to limit encroachment of hardwoods and maintain early successional understory communities. However, prescribed fire may alter habitat availability while female eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) are reproductively active. In addition, the vigor of vegetation regrowth post-fire is impacted by both midstory and overstory stand-conditions which can be a function of stand age. Therefore, the degree to which prescribed fire affects habitat availability and selection of wild turkeys may be a function of both time-since-fire and the age of the stand fire was applied to. We assessed habitat selection of female wild turkeys during their reproductive cycle in a longleaf pine forest managed with frequent prescribed fire. We captured 63 female wild turkeys during 2015 and 2016 on a longleaf pine-dominated landscape in southwestern Georgia, USA, that was managed with 1–3 year fire-return intervals applied to relatively small burn blocks (mean size of burn = 26.02 ha in 2015; 19.84 ha in 2016) on pine stands of varying age-classes. We attached Global Positioning Systems units to individuals and collected hourly locations from 1 March to 15 August. We then used distance-based analyses to estimate daily selection or avoidance of vegetation communities relative to the known reproductive phenology of individual females. Females selected hardwood stands during pre-nesting and post-nesting phases, but avoided them during the incubation phase. Females used open vegetation communities during all phases of reproduction following pre-nesting. Turkeys selected areas burned ≤2 years prior but used different seral stages of pine during different reproductive phases. Specifically, females selected for recently burned mature pine stands during incubation but then selected for recently burned young pine stands, mature pine stands burned 2 years earlier, and open vegetation communities during brooding. Our findings demonstrate that time-since-fire and stand seral age interact to affect how turkeys use pyric landscapes. In general, pine stands providing ample understory vegetation are favored while females are reproductively active. Our data suggests practitioners should try to manage a landscape containing both young and mature pine stands and use prescribed fire to create understory conditions selected by turkeys across all reproductive phases.

Fire influences the distributions of cover and food resources for ungulates in frequently burned systems. Fire typically improves forage quality, and as a result, herbivores are often drawn to recently burned areas–a response termed the ‘magnet effect.’ Thus, fire can be an important tool for manipulating vegetation to benefit wildlife. However, most studies of ungulate responses to fire occur at broad temporal scales (multiple years post-burn), and the immediate effects of fire on ungulates are poorly understood. While conducting a study of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in southern Florida, we were able to evaluate a natural experiment investigating the effects of wildfire on the spatial ecology of deer. In May 2015, the Mud Lake Fire Complex burned approximately 10,250 ha in Big Cypress National Preserve. This area included portions of the home ranges of 19 of 79 deer that we were monitoring via GPS-telemetry and permitted a Before-After-Control-Impact design to investigate if fire altered the area of use and movement rates of deer at 1, 2, and 3 months following fire compared to the month before the fire. Relative to the white-tailed deer in the unburned areas, white-tailed deer in the burned areas increased movement rates, potentially because fire reduced concealment cover, resulting in increased predator detection and decreased predation risk. Counter to our predictions that fire would increase forage quality and result in decreased space use, white-tailed deer exposed to the fire increased their space use following the fire when compared to deer whose home range did not include burned areas. This appeared to be the outcome of balancing competing demands for site fidelity and to increase access to improved forage in the recently burned areas. In general, deer exposed to the fire increased their use of the burned area following the fire, but also maintained portions of their home ranges that were not burned. Our results provide a behavioral confirmation that white-tailed deer are attracted to recently burned areas and that they respond rapidly to the alteration of vegetation.

Geomys pinetis (Southeastern pocket gopher) is a fossorial rodent historically associated with Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) communities. Conversion and fragmentation of longleaf pine communities have reduced quality and quantity of southeastern pocket gopher habitat. It is therefore important to determine characteristics of suitable habitat for future conservation efforts focusing on maintaining or restoring appropriate habitat conditions. We quantified understory vegetation structure (i.e., ground cover categories) and soil characteristics (i.e., soil texture, pH, nitrogen, and carbon at multiple depths) in areas with and without pocket gopher activity. We evaluated a suite of models to determine whether understory vegetation structure, soil characteristics, or a combination of vegetation and soil characteristics were better predictors of gopher presence. Soil characteristics predicted pocket gopher presence better than understory vegetation structure with the best overall model combining per...

The southeastern pocket gopher Geomys pinetis is absent from a large portion of its historical range. Translocation may represent a viable management technique to reestablish populations into suitable habitat. However, several aspects of the species' ecology are poorly understood, making development of an effective translocation approach challenging. Therefore, we used radiotelemetry to examine home range, survival, dispersal, and daily activity patterns of the southeastern pocket gopher in southwestern Georgia. We measured soil and vegetation characteristics within individual home ranges and examined relationships between home range size, habitat variables, and body mass. Mean home range size of 17 radio-tagged pocket gophers was 921.9 m2 (range = 43.4–2246.8 m2). Home range size was positively related to body mass, percent silt at a depth of 25 cm, and soil carbon content at 75 cm and was negatively related to percent sand at 25 cm, percent clay at 50 cm, and ground cover of grasses other than wiregrass Aristida beyrichiana. Survival rate was 0.78 (range = 0.50–1.00) over the 51-wk study, and we documented predation, likely by avian predators, on two individuals. Three individuals dispersed, with a maximum dispersal distance of 319.1 m (range = 143.2–319.1 m), the farthest known southeastern pocket gopher dispersal. Pocket gophers exhibited greater activity from 0000 to 0400 hours and from 1600 to 2000 hours, contrasting previous research that southeastern pocket gophers were equally active throughout the diel period. Our home range size estimates for southeastern pocket gophers are the first determined using radiotelemetry and are considerably smaller than previous estimates. Although we documented dispersal distances more than 300 m, the fragmented nature of current and restored habitats likely will prevent large-scale natural colonization. Our results provide information important for maximizing success in future southeastern pocket gopher translocation efforts.

Anthropogenically modified systems tend to have homogenous wildlife communities. While this process is well documented, the mechanisms driving the convergence of species in human-modified systems are unclear. There are at least two compelling ecological explanations for the loss of specialized species in these settings; changes to the distribution and quality of resources (i.e. environmental conditions) and changes to competitive interactions. Without a better understanding of the mechanisms behind biotic homogenization, it is difficult to take appropriate conservation and management actions to maintain diverse communities. We investigated the roles of environmental conditions and competition in driving biotic homogenization in one of the world's most imperiled ecosystems; the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savanna of the American Southeast. Specifically, we investigated how generalist gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) are replacing the more specialized fox squirrels (S. niger) in shrub and hardwood encroached Southeastern savannas. To test how changes to habitat and competition affect the specialist fox squirrel, we undertook a landscape scale manipulation. We experimentally manipulated competition by removing gray squirrels from closed-canopy patches embedded in longleaf pine savanna. Fox squirrels showed a strong response to gray squirrel removal, increasing their activity by 300% in the interior of closed-canopy patches. Fox squirrels in control patches did not use the interior of closed-canopy patches. Our experimental results support the hypothesis that biotic homogenization occurs when human-induced changes to the environment alter competitive interactions.

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are native and ubiquitous throughout much of the continental United States and are invasive in many countries around the world. Where they occur, raccoons are a known predator of ground-nesting birds and herpetofauna. Raccoons often are associated with hardwood trees; therefore, hardwood reduction in open pine (Pinus spp.) forests of the southeastern U.S. may reduce raccoon use while providing suitable habitat for upland ground-nesting species. As a result, some have suggested removal of undesirable hardwoods as a means to manage nest predation by altering raccoon behavior. However, effects of operationally removing hardwoods from an open pine matrix on raccoon home range size and habitat selection are unknown. We compared home range sizes and habitat selection of adult raccoons in a longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) dominated forest before and after large-scale, operational hardwood removal. Male raccoons had larger (P

Longleaf pine savannas have declined throughout the southeastern United States due to land-use change. Fortunately, natural resource professionals are currently restoring these ecologically and economically important savannas. Although efforts are underway to restore longleaf pine savannas, little information exists on female eastern wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo silvestris population dynamics in these systems. Therefore, we evaluated survival and cause-specific mortality of female eastern wild turkeys in two longleaf pine savannas in southwestern Georgia. We radio-marked 126 female wild turkeys during 2010–2013 and monitored their survival; 66 (52.4%) radio-marked females died during the study. We estimated causes of death for 37 mortality events with predation serving as the leading known cause of mortality, with 35.1% of mortalities attributed to mesocarnivore predation (e.g., bobcat Lynx rufus, coyote Canis latrans, and gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and 18.9% to great-horned owl Bubo virginianu...

Frequent prescribed fire (≤3 yr) and selective harvest of off-site hardwoods are the primary restoration and management tools for pine (Pinus spp.) savannas in the southeastern United States. However, a knowledge gap exists in our understanding of eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) habitat selection in longleaf pine savannas and research is warranted to direct our future management decisions. Therefore, we investigated habitat selection of female turkeys in 2 longleaf pine savanna systems managed by frequent fire in southwestern Georgia during 2011–2013. We observed differential habitat selection across 2 scales (study area and seasonal area of use) and 3 seasons (fall-winter: 1 Oct–30 Jan; pre-breeding: 1 Feb–19 Apr; and summer: 16 Jun–30 Sep). During fall-winter, turkeys selected mature pine, mixed pine-hardwoods, hardwoods, and young pine stands, albeit at different scales. During pre-breeding, turkeys selected for mature pine, mixed pine-hardwoods, hardwoods, young pine, and shrub-scrub, although at different scales. During summer, turkeys also demonstrated scale-specific selection but generally selected for mature pine, hardwoods, and shrub-scrub. Days-since-fire did not influence selection of stands managed by frequent fire (≤3 yr). In cases where female turkeys used pine-dominated stands (i.e., mature pine, young pine, and mixed pine-hardwoods), selection was not influenced by days-since-fire; however, these results are at least partially due to a lack of longer burn rotations (>3 yr) on our study areas. We suggest land managers consider scale of selection by turkeys when developing habitat management strategies. In addition to creating early successional habitat conditions by using prescribed fire, we recommend managers retain hardwoods and recognize the importance of shrub-scrub cover to management of turkey populations in longleaf pine savannas. © 2016 The Wildlife Society.

Ecologists increasingly recognize the importance of trait-mediated indirect interactions and suggest behavioral traits aimed to reduce predation risk can induce trophic cascades. However, the application of theory developed in simple experimental systems to complex natural systems has spurred debate regarding whether predation risk, independent of direct killing, can structure ecosystems. We examined the effects of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) foraging under the risk of predation by coyotes on oak (Quercus spp.) regeneration and the abundance of palatable understory species in a frequently burned longleaf pine savanna. Oaks represent a common but relatively low quality forage item for deer, and are an important component of this system because oak encroachment into pine-dominated uplands can reduce biodiversity. In frequently burned ecosystems oaks and other fire-impeding species often exist in a demographic fire-trap, where they sprout following fire but rarely escape into the midstory, because they are repeatedly top-killed by subsequent fires. Many factor including herbivory stress can influence the probability of fire survival for oak saplings. Other Cervids, including elk (Cervus canadensis) and moose (Alces alces) are known to increase use of woody browse with predation risk because of selection for brushy areas that offer concealment cover. We experimentally manipulated predation risk for 10 years, by establishing 4 approximately 40-ha predator exclosures and 4 control plots to test the effects of predation risk on aspects of the plant community. Reduced predation risk resulted in increased oak recruitment and decreased abundance of palatable forage. A density-mediated trophic cascade does not explain the release of oaks and our results provide support the behaviorally-mediated trophic cascade hypothesis. We offer evidence that frequent disturbance can facilitate trophic cascades and that predator-sensitive foraging can enhance fire suppression of oaks and influence groundcover composition in longleaf pine savannas.

Nest predation is often the primary cause of avian nest failure, and factors influencing nest predation are diverse. To better understand how forest management practices, weather, and indices of nest predator abundance influence nest predation, we set artificial ground nests at 100 sites for 2 weeks each summer from 2002 to 2013 in a longleaf pine/wiregrass ecosystem. We modeled effects of prescribed fire, hardwood removal, rainfall, temperature, indices of mammalian and avian nest predator abundance, and proximity to wildlife food plots and agriculture, edges, and roads on nest predation. Annual nest predation rates ranged from 30% to 74% and averaged 53%. Occurrence of prescribed fire at a nest site 2 months prior to nest placement had little effect. Hardwood removal was also associated with increased rates of nest predation, but this effect appeared most prevalent 4–9 years following removals. Nest predation rates also increased when food plots or agricultural fields were within 50 m of nest sites. Higher temperatures were associated with greater rates of predation, but rainfall did not have a significant influence. There was a general lack of support for effects of predator indices on nest predation rates, except for a weak, negative association with raccoon relative abundance. This study shows the wide range of factors which may influence nest predation and importance of viewing effects of forest management practices on nest predation over the long term.

The ecological implications of coyote Canis latrans colonization of the eastern USA have drawn considerable interest from land managers and the general public. The ability to predict how these ecosystems, which have lacked larger predators for decades, would respond to the invasion of this highly adaptable species needs an understanding of coyote foraging behavior given local resource availability. Therefore, we examined the diet of coyotes in a longleaf pine Pinus palustrus ecosystem from 2007–2012. We examined 673 coyote scats collected on the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center in southwestern Georgia. We observed considerable seasonality in coyote use of rodents, white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, rabbits and vegetation. Coyotes exploited anthropogenic food sources, particularly waste peanuts Arachis hypogaea, during the fall and winter when native soft mast was not available. Adult white-tailed deer were consumed during every month and was not limited to the pulse of carrion availabilit...

We used the imported red-fire ant (Solenopsis invicta; hereafter fire ant) and hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) as model species to address the population-level effects of an invasive ant on a semiprecocial small mammal. We stocked cotton rats into 8 enclosures, implementing a 2-way factorial design with predator (ambient or excluded) and fire ant (ambient or reduced) treatments as factors. We trapped monthly from June 2012 to June 2013 and calculated monthly recruitment and survival. Rats in enclosures with ambient predators had a risk of mortality approximately 2 times greater than rats in enclosures with predators excluded. The risk of mortality was 3 and 4.5 times greater for female and male cotton rats, respectively, in enclosures with ambient fire ants and predators compared to enclosures with reduced fire ants and excluded predators. We found no effects on recruitment. Our results indicate that native predators had the greatest influence on cotton rat populations. Nevertheless, in the absence ...

We used the southern toad (Anaxyrus terrestris) as a model species to explore how an invasive species, the red-imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta; hereafter RIFA), influences amphibian predator avoidance and movement behaviors. Our objective was to determine if toads spent less time near and moved more frequently in the presence of RIFAs compared to pyramid ants by comparing behavioral reactions of toads to RIFAs versus a control and pyramid ants versus a control. Laboratory experiments involved three treatments including no ants, RIFAs, and native pyramid ants (Dorymyrmex bureni) within an experimental arena. We randomly placed ants into one of two containers located at each end of the arena. For each trial we placed a toad into the experimental arena, allowed the toad to acclimate and then recorded its behavior. We calculated the proportion of time the toad spent near ants and the number of movements completed by each toad. Comparing the RIFA treatment to the pyramid ant treatment, toads spent 35 % less time on the half of the experimental arena near RIFAs (P = 0.0304). Toad movements were 1.5 times more frequent in trials with RIFAs than pyramid ants (P = 0.0488). We propose that southern toads associate RIFAs either with increased predation risk or risk of injury compared to pyramid ants. Although the behaviors we observed might lessen the direct effects of RIFAs on southern toads via predation and injury, the indirect effects of increased movement and avoidance of RIFAs could also influence toad fitness by decreasing reproductive and foraging success.

Costs associated with antipredator behaviors can have profound effects on prey populations. We investigated the effects of predation risk on white-tailed deer foraging behavior by manipulating predator distributions through exclusion while controlling for effects of habitat type. In 2003, we constructed predator exclosures on 4 of 8 approximately 40-ha study plots in southwestern Georgia, USA. We examined the seasonal and sex-specific effects of predator exclusion, and group size and composition on the behavioral state (i.e., feeding or vigilant) of foraging white-tailed deer at baited camera traps during 2011–2012. Predator exclusion resulted in a 5% increase in the time females spent feeding during the summer, concurrent with fawning; and 13.4% increase in the time males spent feeding during winter, while in postrut condition. Males were more vigilant than females and demonstrated a stronger response to predator exclusion. Males showed no response to group size or composition, whereas females and juveniles decreased foraging when males were present during the summer. Our results suggest that white-tailed deer alter vigilance levels in response to predator distributions independent of habitat cues. We propose that expanding coyote populations in the southeastern USA influence white-tailed deer numerically through predation of juveniles, and behaviorally by inducing antipredator responses that likely carry foraging costs. This emerging predator–prey dynamic may have strong nonconsumptive effects on naive white-tailed deer populations that experienced little nonanthropogenic predation risk for decades.

Longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) savannas are economically and ecologically important throughout the southeastern United States; however, deforestation and other land use changes have led to their decline. Fortunately, natural resource professionals have recognized the importance of restoring these ecologically important forests that support a diversity of native flora and fauna. Although efforts are underway to restore longleaf pine savannas, little information exists on Eastern wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo silvestris ) reproductive ecology within these systems. Therefore, we used radio telemetry to investigate Eastern wild turkey reproductive ecology in 2 longleaf pine-dominated forests in southwestern Georgia during 2011–2013. Forty-two percent of nests ( n = 78) were successful (⩾1 egg hatched) with most nest loss resulting from predation. Five nests were exposed to prescribed fire events (2 were successful; 3 were unsuccessful). Thirty-seven percent of females renested following loss to predation, fire, or other factors. Of these, 43% successfully hatched (⩾1 egg hatched). We monitored 34 broods post-hatch. Of the 34 broods, 11 (32%) survived the 14-day flightless period. Of the remaining 11 broods, 7 (64%) survived the following 2-week period (i.e., days 15–30). One of 34 broods was lost to growing-season prescribed fire during the study. Females frequently selected nest sites in areas at the end of their burn rotation (i.e., prior to the next scheduled burn; x ¯ = 613.7 days since burn for all nests from nest initiation date; SE = 44.7 days). Habitat characteristics at the nest-site and patch-level had little influence on nest survival, suggesting that once a nest site is chosen, nest predation occurs randomly with respect to habitat characteristics. In addition, timing of nest initiation did not significantly improve nest survival. Management of longleaf pine savannas should focus on applying prescribed fire every 1–2 years to maintain native flora communities while enhancing nest and brood cover. Our results also indicate that growing-season prescribed fire has minimal impact on wild turkey production.

Species intolerant to fire, defined as lacking adaptations needed to establish dominance in a frequently burned landscape, are found within fire-prone ecosystems globally. Such species are frequently targeted for reduction or eradication to further conservation or restoration of biological diversity because the dominant paradigm in restoration of fire-dependent communities is to reduce the dominance or eliminate fire-intolerant invaders. To explore this paradigm, we examined the role of oaks (Quercus spp.) within fire-dependent upland and sandhill longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystems of the southeastern United States. These pine-oak ecosystems have among the highest levels of biodiversity in the temperate zone. This diversity is inextricably linked to a frequent fire regime and includes many species readily top-killed by fire, particularly oaks, which were common in the early settlement landscape. In examining the diversity of oak species found within longleaf pine ecosystems, we identify a group of pyrophytic oaks and show that these oaks are critical components of sandhill and other longleaf pine ecosystems, and their occurrence should be considered as part of conservation and restoration goals. Providing a better understanding of the ecological role of such species will benefit conservation management and strategic planning in fire-prone southeastern ecosystems and more broadly where fire is used as a management tool. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.

Six-lined racerunner (Aspidoscelis sexlineata) is an indicator species of frequently burned Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests. To evaluate how the species responded to forest restoration, we conducted a mark-recapture study in formerly fire-suppressed Longleaf pine forests exposed to prescribed fire or fire surrogates (i.e. mechanical or herbicide-facilitated hardwood removal) as well as in firesuppressed control sites and reference sites, which represented the historic condition. After initial treatment, all sites were exposed to over a decade of prescribed burning with an average return interval of approximately 2 years. We used population-level response of A. sexlineata as an indicator of the effectiveness of the different treatments in restoring habitat. Specifically, we compared mean numbers of marked adults and juveniles at treatment sites to that of reference sites. After 4 years, restoration objectives were met at sites treated with burning alone and at sites treated with mechanical removal of hardwoods followed by fire. After over 10 years of prescribed burning, restoration objectives were met at all treatments. We conclude that prescribed burning alone was sufficient to restore fire-suppressed Longleaf pine sandhills for A. sexlineata populations.

Rapid decline and degradation of longleaf pine ecosystems in the southeastern United States are conservation concerns. Prescribed fire is the primary management activity in this fire-dependent ecosystem, but prescribed fire is under increasing scrutiny, primarily due to air quality issues. There are concerns that prescribed fire may be removed, or replaced by herbicide, as a forest management tool without adequate understanding of the ecological consequences associated with such a change in management. We conducted a capture-mark-recapture study from April 1999 to April 2002 to examine experimentally the effect of prescribed fire, herbicide application and herbicide-prescribed fire combination on apparent survival rates of cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus) and cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) populations. There was no evidence that herbicide application affected survival of cotton mice. Evidence to support effects of prescribed fire and herbicide-fire combination on survival of cotton mice was weak, although apparent monthly survival generally increased after these treatments. There was strong evidence that prescribed fire and herbicide-fire treatments affected survival of cotton rats, but the evidence for the effect of herbicide alone on survival was weak; survival rates declined in response to all three treatments but most strongly in response to the prescribed fire treatment. Fire alone had a stronger effect than an herbicide-fire treatment in both species. Without clear understanding of their ecological impacts, alternatives to prescribed fire should be employed with caution.

Food resources and predation play important roles in determining small mammal population dynamics. These factors also can interact as individuals under predation pressure make trade-offs between access to food resources and exposure to predators. Fires consume food sources and reduce cover, which increases exposure to predators. For species that occur in areas with frequent fire, it is instructive to consider how all of these factors interact to affect populations of interest. We examined how supplemental feeding, mammalian predator exclusion, and prescribed fire affected survival, abundance, and reproduction of cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus) and oldfield mice (P. polionotus) in a longleaf pine ecosystem. Burning and predator exclusion interacted to affect survival of cotton mice; survival was similar in predator exclosures and controls in nonburning periods and in controls following prescribed burns but increased in exclosures following burns. Rates of transitions to reproductive states (wh...

Food resources and predation can influence various aspects of the ecology of small mammals, including movement and space-use patterns. We used radiotelemetry to examine experimentally how supplemental feeding and mammalian predator exclusion affected size and exclusivity of hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) home ranges. Supplemental feeding had no effect on home-range size, and exclusivity was not influenced by either treatment. However, predator exclusion was associated with increased home-range sizes, indicating a behavioral response to perceived predation risk. We suggest that this behavioral response reflects a trade-off between predation risk and space-use patterns.

Control of mid-sized mammalian predators (hereafter, mesopredators) is sometimes advocated in an attempt to reduce their impact on wildlife populations, particularly economically important (i.e., game) or endangered species. However, mesopredators may play a role in regulating small mammal populations; thus, lethal control of mesopredators may have unintended consequences. The hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus; hereafter, cotton rat) is one of the most common small mammals in the southeastern United States and is an important prey species for several of the region's predators. Within fire-maintained communities, such as the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests of the Coastal Plain, cotton rat populations dramatically, yet temporarily, decline following prescribed fire. To evaluate the effects of mesopredator removal on cotton rat survival and cause-specific mortality, we conducted a large-scale mesopredator exclusion experiment that incorporated a prescribed fire during the winter of study. Between 18 May 2006 and 20 June 2007, we used radio-telemetry to monitor 252 cotton rats (131 in exclosures and 121 in controls) and documented 184 mortalities. During the 37-week period of monitoring prior to the prescribed fire event, weekly survival of cotton rats was greater in mesopredator exclusion plots. During the 19 weeks following the prescribed fire, there were no differences in weekly survival relative to mesopredator treatment, but fire caused a short-term reduction in weekly survival within both exclosures and controls. Of 36 cotton rats monitored on the date of prescribed fire, 18 were depredated within 1 month, 4 emigrated, and 5 were killed by the fire event. Overall, raptors preyed on cotton rats more in exclosures than in controls, but evidence for compensatory predation (raptor-caused morality greater in exclosures than in controls although survival rates were similar between treatments) only occurred following the prescribed fire event. Our results suggest that managing mesopredators may result in a temporary increase in cotton rat survival, but dormant season prescribed fire removes this effect until well into the following growing season.

Despite the ecological importance of bats, a lack of basic data, such as space-use needs, hinders management efforts. Therefore, we investigated home-range size in Nycticeius humeralis (Evening Bats) by radiotracking 14 individuals (5 females and 9 males) for 7–11 nights each in a pine-dominated landscape in southwestern Georgia during June–August 2008. We generated 95% and 50% adaptive kernel (AK) home ranges and 95% minimum convex polygon (MCP) home ranges and found that mean 95% AK home-range size was 155.7 ± 38.3 ha, with individual values ranging from 36.9 ha to 565.9 ha. Mean 95% MCP home-range size was 118.5 ± 29.5 ha, with individual values ranging from 33.6–456.2 ha. Home-range sizes did not differ between males and females (P = 0.35), but were larger in August (P = 0.004) than in June and July. Evening Bat home-range sizes on our study area were similar to previously documented home ranges in forested and rural landscapes. Although Evening Bats may be habitat generalists relative to for...

Lynx rufus (Bobcat) cover-type selection and activity patterns have been studied in a variety of landscapes in the southeastern United States, but effects of individual activity status (active or inactive) and time of day (day, night, crepuscular) on cover-type selection have not been investigated for this species. Therefore, we investigated Bobcat habitat use in a Pinus palustris (Longleaf Pine) forest in southwestern Georgia to determine whether activity status of individuals or time of day affected seasonal cover-type selection. We monitored 43 radiocollared Bobcats from 2001–2004 and determined habitat use at Johnson's third order of selection (i.e., habitat selection within the home range) using Euclidean distance-based analysis. Bobcats selected (Λ = 0.017, P = 0.001) habitat within their home ranges; however, although Bobcats are typically classified as crepuscular, neither activity status (Λ = 0.990, P = 0.981) nor time-of-day (Λ = 0.972, P = 0.647) affected cover-type selection. Bobcats ...

Gray fox ecology is poorly understood within the longleaf pine ecosystem, despite the importance of these landscapes to conservation and biological diversity. During 2002–2006, we radio-monitored 42 gray foxes and estimated space use, habitat selection and survival within a managed longleaf pine forest. Sizes of home ranges and core areas were greater in winter than during other seasons, but were similar between males and females. Industrial agriculture field and residential areas were important to foxes when selecting home ranges, but hardwood forest stands were selected when establishing core areas and were consistently used more than other habitats. Despite being captured within the longleaf pine community, most foxes either consistently were found outside of this system in other habitats, or used habitats along the periphery of the longleaf pine system. Mean annual survival was 0.61, and human-induced factors (vehicle collisions and trapping) accounted for most (63%) fox mortalities. Longleaf...