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Acaricide resistance has become widespread in countries where cattle ticks, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, are a problem. Resistance arises through genetic changes in a cattle tick population that causes modifications to the target site, increased metabolism or sequestration of the acaricide, or reduced ability of the acaricide to penetrate through the outer protective layers of the tick’s body. We review the molecular and biochemical mechanisms of acaricide resistance that have been shown to be functional in R. (B.) microplus. From a mechanistic point of view, resistance to pyrethroids has been characterized to a greater degree than any other acaricide class. Although a great deal of research has gone into discovery of the mechanisms that cause organophosphate resistance, very little is defined at the molecular level and organophosphate resistance seems to be maintained through a complex and multifactorial process. The resistance mechanisms for other acaricides are less well understood. The target sites of fipronil and the macrocyclic lactones are known and resistance mechanism studies are in the early stages. The target site of amitraz has not been definitively identified and this is hampering mechanistic studies on this acaricide.A resistência aos acaricidas tornou-se amplamente difundida nos países onde os carrapatos bovinos, Rhipicephalus .Boophilus. microplus, são um problema. A resistência surge por meio de alterações genéticas em umapopulação de carrapatos que causam modificações no local de ação, aumento do metabolismo ou sequestro do acaricida, ou ainda redução na capacidade do acaricida em penetrar através das camadas protetoras do corpo do carrapato. Neste artigo, foram revisados os mecanismos moleculares e bioquímicos da resistência aos acaricidas que ocorrem em R. (B.) microplus. A partir de um ponto de vista dos mecanismos envolvidos, a resistência aos piretróides tem sido caracterizada em maior grau do que em qualquer outra classe de acaricida. Embora uma grande quantidade de pesquisas têm sido direcionada para a descoberta de mecanismos que causam resistência aos organofosforados, muito pouco é conhecido ao nível molecular, e essa resistência parece ser mantida por intermédio de um processo multifatorial e complexo. Os mecanismos de resistência para os demais acaricidas são bem menos compreendidos. Os alvos de ação do fipronil e das lactonas macrocíclicas são conhecidos, e os estudos dos mecanismos de ação envolvidos estão ainda em estágios iniciais. O alvo de ação do amitraz ainda não foi definitivamente identificado, e isso é limitante aos estudos dos mecanismos envolvidos na resistência a esse acaricida.

BACKGROUND: Schistosomiasis and opisthorchiasis are of public health importance in Southeast Asia. Praziquantel (PZQ) is the drug of choice for morbidity control but few dose comparisons have been made. METHODOLOGY: Ninety-three schoolchildren were enrolled in an area of Lao PDR where Schistosoma mekongi and Opisthorchis viverrini coexist for a PZQ dose-comparison trial. Prevalence and intensity of infections were determined by a rigorous diagnostic effort (3 stool specimens, each examined with triplicate Kato-Katz) before and 28-30 days after treatment. Ninety children with full baseline data were randomized to receive PZQ: the 40 mg/kg standard single dose (n = 45) or a 75 mg/kg total dose (50 mg/kg+25 mg/kg, 4 hours apart; n = 45). Adverse events were assessed at 3 and 24 hours posttreatment. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Baseline infection prevalence of S. mekongi and O. viverrini were 87.8% and 98.9%, respectively. S. mekongi cure rates were 75.0% (95% confidence interval (CI): 56.6-88.5%) and 80.8% (95% CI: 60.6-93.4%) for 40 mg/kg and 75 mg/kg PZQ, respectively (P = 0.60). O. viverrini cure rates were significantly different at 71.4% (95% CI: 53.4-84.4%) and 96.6% (95% CI: not defined), respectively (P = 0.009). Egg reduction rates (ERRs) against O. viverrini were very high for both doses (>99%), but slightly lower for S. mekongi at 40 mg/kg (96.4% vs. 98.1%) and not influenced by increasing diagnostic effort. O. viverrini cure rates would have been overestimated and no statistical difference between doses found if efficacy was based on a minimum sampling effort (single Kato-Katz before and after treatment). Adverse events were common (96%), mainly mild with no significant differences between the two treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Cure rate from the 75 mg/kg PZQ dose was more efficacious than 40 mg/kg against O. viverrini but not against S. mekongi infections, while ERRs were similar for both doses. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN57714676.