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Reena Kabaria, Zachary Klaassen, Martha K Terris Department of Surgery, Section of Urology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA Abstract: This review provides an overview of the incidence of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and a summary of the most commonly associated risk factors. A literature review was performed with a focus on recent studies with a high level of evidence (large prospective cohort studies and meta-analyses). The incidence rate of RCC varies globally, with the rate rising rapidly in more developed regions, demonstrating the effects of increased use of diagnostic imaging and prevalence of modifiable risk factors. Based on the current evidence, cigarette smoking, obesity, and hypertension are the most well-established risk factors for sporadic RCC worldwide. Acquired cystic kidney disease is also a significant risk factor, specifically in dialysis patients. There is increasing evidence for an inverse association between RCC risk and moderate alcohol consumption. Certain analgesics and occupational exposure have been linked to an increased risk of RCC, although data are limited. Diets rich in fruits and vegetables may provide a protective effect. Keywords: renal cell carcinoma, risk factors, incidence, smoking, obesity, hypertension

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Immunotherapy agents are an innovative oncological treatment modality and as a result their use has expanded widely. Understanding the treatment-related adverse events (AEs) of these drugs compared with traditional chemotherapy is crucial for clinical practice. A systematic review of studies indexed in Medline (PubMed), Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Databases from January 2000 to 14 February 2019 was conducted. Randomized clinical trials comparing immunotherapy [cytotoxic T-lymphocyte protein-4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), or programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1)] with standard-of-care chemotherapy in the treatment of advanced solid-organ neoplasms were included if AEs were reported as an outcome. Primary outcome was AEs ≥ grade 3 in severity. Secondary outcomes were proportion of overall AEs, treatment discontinuation due to AEs, deaths due to AEs, and specific AEs [fatigue, diarrhea, acute kidney injury (AKI), colitis, pneumonitis, and hypothyroidism]. Paule–Mandel pooling and a random effects model were used to produce odds ratios (ORs) for measures of effects. Among 10 598 abstracts screened, we included 22 studies involving 12 727 patients. In the immunotherapy group, 16.5% of patients developed an AE ≥ grade 3 in severity, compared with 41.09% in the chemotherapy arm [OR = 0.26, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.19–0.35, I 2 = 92%]. Patients receiving immunotherapy also had lower odds of developing an AE overall (OR = 0.35, 95% CI 0.28–0.44; I 2 = 77%), terminating therapy due to an AE (OR = 0.55, 95% CI 0.39–0.78, I 2 = 80%), or dying from a treatment-related AE (OR = 0.67, 95% CI 0.46–0.98, I 2 = 0%). When treated with chemotherapy versus immunotherapy, patients more frequently experienced fatigue (25.10% versus 15.83%), diarrhea (14.97% versus 11.13%), and AKI (1.79% versus 1.31%). However, colitis (1.02% versus 0.26%), pneumonitis (3.36% versus 0.36%), and hypothyroidism (6.82% versus 0.37%) were more common in those treated with immunotherapy. Treatment of advanced solid-organ malignancies with immunotherapy compared with traditional chemotherapy is associated with a lower risk of AEs. • 22 trials involving 12,727 patients with advanced solid organ malignancies were included in this meta-analysis. • Patients receiving immunotherapy were less likely to develop severe adverse events than those receiving chemotherapy. • Fewer terminations due to adverse events or deaths due to adverse events occurred in the immunotherapy group. • Fatigue and diarrhea were more likely to occur in patients treated with chemotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]