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In 2019–2023 the 13th Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI) was implemented by measuring a total of 62 266 sample plots across the country. The methodology of the sampling and measurements was similar as in the previous inventory, but the proportion and number of remeasured permanent plots was increased to improve the monitoring of annual increment and other changes in the forests. Only 6.2 M ha (14%) of Finland’s total land area (30.4 M ha) is other land than forestry land. Productive and poorly productive forests cover 22.9 M ha (75%) of the total land area. The forest area has remained stable in recent decades but the forest area available for wood supply (FAWS) has decreased due to increased forest protection – 23% of the forestry land and 10% of the productive forest are not available for wood supply. Compared to the previous inventory, forest resources have continued to increase but the average annual increment has declined from 107.8 M m3 to 103.0 M m3. The quality of forests from the timber production point of view has remained relatively good or improved slightly. The area of observed forest damage on FAWS is 8.4 M ha (46% of FAWS area), half of these minor damages with no impact on stand quality. Although the area of forest damage has not increased, the amount of mortality has continued to increase, and is now 8.8 M m3 year–1. The amount of dead wood has continued to increase in South Finland, while in North Finland the declining trend has turned into a slight increase. Since the 1920s, the area of forestry land has remained stable, but the area of productive forest has increased due to the drainage of poorly productive or treeless peatlands. The total volume of growing stock has increased by 84% and annual increment has more than doubled.

Forest characteristics vary largely at the regional level and in smaller geographic areas in Finland. The amount of greenhouse gas emissions is related to changes in biomass and the soil type (e.g. upland soils vs. peatlands). In this paper, estimating and explaining spatial patterns of tree biomass change across Finland was the main interest. We analysed biomass changes on different soil and site types between the years 2009 and 2015 using the Finnish multi-source national forest inventory (MS-NFI) raster layers. MS-NFI method is based on combining information from satellite imagery, digital maps and national forest inventory (NFI) field data. Automatic segmentation was used to create silvicultural management and treatment units. An average biomass estimate of the segmented MS-NFI (MS–NFI–seg) map was 73.9 tons ha−1 compared to the national forest inventory estimate of 76.5 tons ha−1 in 2015. Forest soil type had a similar effect on average biomass in MS–NFI–seg and NFI data. Despite good regional and country-level results, segmentation narrowed the biomass distributions. Hence, biomass changes on segments can be considered only approximate values; also, those small differences in average biomass may accumulate when map layers from more than one time point are compared. A kappa of 0.44 was achieved for precision when comparing undisturbed and disturbed forest stands in the segmented Global Forest Change data (GFC-seg) and MS–NFI–seg map. Compared to NFI, 69% and 62% of disturbed areas were detected by GFC-seg and MS–NFI–seg, respectively. Spatially accurate map data of biomass changes on forest land improve the ability to suggest optimal management alternatives for any patch of land, e.g. in terms of climate change mitigation.

In Finland, free-ranging Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) population has grown from 30 to 40 individuals to 2800 individuals since the species became partly protected in 1962. Changes in host population size are known to have an impact on host-parasite dynamics, and the Eurasian lynx population in Finland provides a unique opportunity for studying the potential effects of dramatic population increase and expansion of a solitary apex predator on their parasite prevalence and abundance. Toxocara cati is a zoonotic gastrointestinal parasite infecting domestic cats and wild felids worldwide. We studied T. cati infection prevalence and worm burden in 2756 Eurasian lynx individuals from Finland, covering the years 1999–2015. Toxocara cati worms that had been collected from intestinal contents were identified based on morphology. We performed regression analyses to investigate possible associations of age, sex, and host population density with T. cati infection. We found T. cati from 2324 (84.3%, 95% confidence interval 82.9–86.0) of the examined lynx. Each year, the infection prevalence was higher than 75% and not density dependent. The parasites were strongly aggregated, with older individuals harboring fewer T. cati than younger ones did. Old females aged 9–15 years had higher T. cati abundance than males of the same age group. Our results indicate that T. cati was a common and abundant parasite of Eurasian lynx throughout the study period, regardless of the changing population size and density.

Membrane-based concept comprising microfiltration and nanofiltration pre-treatments, reverse osmosis pre-concentration, and membrane distillation used for final concentration was applied for producing purified and concentrated recycled deicing fluid. Additionally, a techno-economic assessment was conducted to determine the economic viability of the recycling concept. By a straightforward membrane-based concept, ∼95% of solid and colloidal impurities together with certain deicing fluid additives such as colorants and surfactants could be efficiently removed (removal efficiencies of ∼90% and ∼93%, respectively), and resulting purified deicing fluid could be concentrated to ∼60 wt% glycol solution, enabling its recycling in deicing operations. Preliminary techno-economic assessment indicated that a membrane-based concept can be used as an economically viable alternative for recycling the spent deicing fluid at airports. The techno-economic case study at an airport consuming 4,000 tonnes of deicing fluid during 6 months annually showed the concept to be economically feasible when the price of purchased propylene glycol is over 1,000 EUR/tonne. In addition to the purchase price of the propylene glycol, the most important cost factors were labor cost and the annual consumption of deicing fluid. Integrating the membrane concept with other operations at airport has potential to decrease the labor cost and further improve the economic feasibility of the concept. HIGHLIGHTS Membrane concept was successfully utilized for purification and concentration of spent deicing fluid.; By the applied membrane concept, a glycol solution having ∼60 wt% of glycol could be produced.; Utilized concept was able to remove over 90% of impurities.; TEA indicated the concept to be economically feasible.; Integrating the operation of the concept with other operations at airport can potentially decrease the labor cost.;

Intense pressure on water resources has led to efforts to reuse reclaimed processing wastewater in the food industry. There are tight rules for water quality, but efficient separation technologies such as reverse osmosis possess good possibilities for water reuse. This study developed a membrane-based reuse water concept for wastewater from the candy industry emphasizing the pre-treatment stage in the concept to reduce fouling. The wastewater contained suspended solids, sugar compounds and the ingredients for candy gelation, which had a tendency to foul membranes, making pre-treatment essential for a successful concept. Cross-rotational ultrafiltration, which featured enhanced fouling prevention for membranes, functioned well for the removal of challenging substances. Conventional filtration technologies were impractical due to a low flux, even when the viscosity of the wastewater was reduced using surfactants. The wastewater had a high chemical oxygen demand, meaning that there was a strong fouling potential for reverse osmosis membranes, but also high osmotic pressure. A spiral wound reverse osmosis functioned well when the wastewater was pre-treated, and it produced good quality water with respect to all the other studied parameters except the chemical oxygen demand. However, chemical oxygen demand rejection was 99% since the concentration in the wastewater was originally very high. HIGHLIGHTS A membrane-based concept was successfully applied for water reuse from wastewater.; Cross-rotational ultrafiltration technology enabled chemical-free pre-treatment for wastewater.; Spiral wound reverse osmosis achieved good filtration performance with developed pre-treatment.; Techno-economic evaluation is available for the functional concept.;

Abstract Background The local pivotal method (LPM) utilizing auxiliary data in sample selection has recently been proposed as a sampling method for national forest inventories (NFIs). Its performance compared to simple random sampling (SRS) and LPM with geographical coordinates has produced promising results in simulation studies. In this simulation study we compared all these sampling methods to systematic sampling. The LPM samples were selected solely using the coordinates (LPMxy) or, in addition to that, auxiliary remote sensing-based forest variables (RS variables). We utilized field measurement data (NFI-field) and Multi-Source NFI (MS-NFI) maps as target data, and independent MS-NFI maps as auxiliary data. The designs were compared using relative efficiency (RE); a ratio of mean squared errors of the reference sampling design against the studied design. Applying a method in NFI also requires a proven estimator for the variance. Therefore, three different variance estimators were evaluated against the empirical variance of replications: 1) an estimator corresponding to SRS; 2) a Grafström-Schelin estimator repurposed for LPM; and 3) a Matérn estimator applied in the Finnish NFI for systematic sampling design. Results The LPMxy was nearly comparable with the systematic design for the most target variables. The REs of the LPM designs utilizing auxiliary data compared to the systematic design varied between 0.74–1.18, according to the studied target variable. The SRS estimator for variance was expectedly the most biased and conservative estimator. Similarly, the Grafström-Schelin estimator gave overestimates in the case of LPMxy. When the RS variables were utilized as auxiliary data, the Grafström-Schelin estimates tended to underestimate the empirical variance. In systematic sampling the Matérn and Grafström-Schelin estimators performed for practical purposes equally. Conclusions LPM optimized for a specific variable tended to be more efficient than systematic sampling, but all of the considered LPM designs were less efficient than the systematic sampling design for some target variables. The Grafström-Schelin estimator could be used as such with LPMxy or instead of the Matérn estimator in systematic sampling. Further studies of the variance estimators are needed if other auxiliary variables are to be used in LPM.

One option for new nitrogen sources is industrial liquid side streams containing ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N). Unfortunately, NH4-N often exists in low concentrations in large water volumes. In order to achieve a highly concentrated NH4-Nsolution, scalant removal is needed. In this study, scalant removal by precipitation was investigated. At alkali pH, sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) was used as a precipitation chemical while at acidic pH, the chemical used was oxalic acid (C2H2O4). At alkali pH, high Na2CO3 dose was needed to achieve low content of calcium, which, with sulphate, formed the main scalant in the studied mine water. NH4-N at alkali pH was in the form of gaseous ammonia but it stayed well in the solution during pre-treatment for nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO). However, it was not rejected sufficiently, even via LG SW seawater RO membrane. At acidic pH with CaC2O4 precipitation, NF90 was able to be used for NH4-N concentration up to the volume reduction factor of 25. Then, NH4-N concentration increased from 0.17 g/L to 3 g/L. NF270 produced the best fluxes for acid pre-treated mine water, but NH4-N rejection was not adequate. NF90 membrane with mine water pre-treated using acid was successfully verified on a larger scale using the NF90-2540 spiral wound element.

Pulpwood arriving at the mills is mainly measured by weighing. In the loading phase of forwarding and trucking, timber is weighed using scales mounted in the grapple loader. The measured weight of timber is converted into volume using a conversion factor defined as green density (kg m). At the mill, the green density factor is determined by sampling measurements, while in connection with weighing with grapple-mounted scales during transportation, fixed green density factors are used. In this study, we developed predictive regression models for the green density of pulpwood. The models were constructed separately by pulpwood assortments: pine (contains mainly L); spruce (mainly (L.) Karst.); decayed spruce; birch (mainly Ehrh. and Roth); and aspen (mainly L.). Study material was composed of the sampling-based measurements at the mills between 2013â2019. The models were specified as linear mixed models with both fixed and random parameters. The fixed effect produced the expected value of green density as a function of delivery week, storage time, and meteorological conditions during storage. The random effects allowed the model calibration by utilizing the previous sampling weight measurements. The model validation showed that the model predictions faithfully reproduced the observed seasonal variation in green density. They were more reliable than those obtained with the current practices. Even the uncalibrated (fixed) predictions had lower relative root mean squared prediction errors than those obtained with the current practices.â3Pinus sylvestrisPicea abiesBetula pubescensBetula pendulaPopulus tremula

We describe the methodology applied in the 12th national forest inventory of Finland (NFI12) and describe the state of Finlandâs forests as well as the development of some key parameters since 1920s. According to the NFI12, the area of forestry land (consisting of productive and poorly productive forest, unproductive land, and other forestry land) is 26.2 M ha. The area of forestry land has decreased from 1920s to 1960s due to expansion of agriculture and built-up land. 20% of the forestry land is not available for wood supply and 13% is only partly available for wood supply. The area of peatlands is 8.8 M ha, which is one third of the forestry land. 53% of the current area of peatlands is drained. The volume of growing stock, 2500 M m, is 1.7 times the volume estimated in NFI1 in the 1920s for the current territory of Finland. The estimated annual volume increment is 107.8 M m. The increment estimate has doubled since the estimate of NFI2 implemented in late 1930s. The annual mortality is estimated to 7 M m, which is 0.5 M m more than according to the previous inventory. Serious or complete damage was observed on 2% of the productive forest available for wood supply. The amount of dead wood is on average 5.8 m ha in productive forests. Since the NFI9 (1996â2003) the amount of dead wood has increased in South Finland and decreased in North Finland both in protected forests and forests available for wood supply (FAWS). The area of natural or almost natural forests on productive forest is 380â000 ha, out of this, 42â000 ha are in FAWS and 340â000 ha in protected forests.33333â1

Water reuse from wastewater treatment plants can significantly reduce freshwater demand. Additionally municipal sewage and some industrial wastewaters could be used as sources of nutrients and carbon more effectively than they are used today. Biological treatments have attracted the most attention in wastewater purification, whereas, so far, only a little attention has been paid to the physico-chemical technologies. These technologies could, however, have great potential to recover nutrients when purifying wastewater. In this study, the main emphasis was to study the possibilities to utilize existing physico-chemical unit operations for wastewater purification and nutrients as well as carbon recovery. Unit operations were selected so that they could produce exploitable circular economy products from wastewaters and be assembled in a mobile container for carrying out recovery anywhere that is suitable. The results showed that in a mobile container, solids could be successfully separated from the studied wastewaters by flocculation-assisted solid/liquid separation and then processed into hydrochar by hydrothermal carbonization. Phosphate was precipitated using lime milk as calcium phosphate, and ammonium nitrogen was captured from the wastewater using membrane contactor technology resulting in ammonium sulphate for fertilizer use. Additionally, reverse osmosis retained residual impurities well, producing good quality water for reuse. The techno-economic feasibility seems promising.

Hakkuukonemittauksessa tyvipölkkyjen tyviosan läpimitat määritetään laskennallisesti puulaji­kohtaisilla tyvifunktioilla. Tyviosalla tarkoitetaan 1,3 metrin pituista rungonosaa kaatosahauksesta lähtien. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli tarkastaa ja tarvittaessa korjata hakkuukonemittauksessa käytettävä männyn tyvifunktio. Tutkimukseen valittiin 33 eri puolella Suomea sijaitsevaa mäntymetsikköä, joista valittiin 825 koepuuta. Koepuiden mittauksia tehtiin metsässä, ja hakkuiden jälkeen koepuiden tyvipölkyille tehtiin mittauksia kuudella eri tehtaalla. Koetyvipölkkyjen tyviosien vertailutilavuudet määritettiin upotusmittauksella. Tyvifunktioissa tyviosan suhteellinen muoto muuttuu tyvipölkyn järeyden, siis 130 senttimetrin etäisyydeltä kaatosahauksesta mitatun läpimitan, mukaan. Tässä tutkimuksessa tyvifunktio tuotti pienillä puilla suurempia, ja suurilla puilla pienempiä läpimittoja koepuiden tyviosista saksimittauksella mitattuihin läpimittoihin verrattuna. Koetyvipölkkyaineistossa tyviosan suhteellinen muoto ei muuttunut pölkkyjen järeyden mukaan, vaan oli likimäärin vakio. Tyvifunktion korjaus muodostui kahdesta vaiheesta, niin sanotuista oikaisukorjauksesta ja tasokorjauksesta. Tyvifunktion oikaisukorjaus tehtiin koepuiden tyviosista saksimittauksella mitattujen läpimitta-aineistojen perusteella. Näin korjatun tyvifunktion perusteella määritetyt koetyvipölkkyjen tyviosan tilavuudet olivat noin viisi prosenttia tyviosien upotustilavuuksia suurempia kaikilla järeyksillä. Edelleen tyvifunktiolle tehtiin tasokorjaus siten, että tyvifunktion perusteella määritetyt tyviosan tilavuudet vastasivat upotustilavuutta. Tyvifunktion korjauksen vaikutus sillä määritettyyn tyviosan tilavuuteen oli pienillä noin 50 litran rungoilla (rinnankorkeusläpimitta noin 10 senttimetriä) noin –8,5 prosenttia ja suurilla noin 1750 litran rungoilla (rinnankorkeusläpimitta noin 45 senttimetriä) noin –2,9 prosenttia. Kun tyvifunktion korjaus suhteutetaan koko rungon tilavuuksiin, olivat vastaavat osuudet noin –2,3 ja –0,4 prosenttia. Kun korjaus suhteutetaan Suomen kokonaishakkuukertymäarvioissa esitettyihin järeysluokkien osuuksiin, on kokonaisvaikutus suuntaa-antavasti noin yhden prosentin vähennys männyn kokonaistilavuudessa.

Tässä julkaisusssa esitetään valtakunnan metsien 10. inventointiin (VMI10) perustuvat tiedot Suomen metsävaroista ja metsien tilasta. Maastotiedot on kerätty vuosina 1996–2004. Tulokset esitetään metsäkeskusalueittain, osa tuloksista myös puuntuotannon rajoitusten ja metsänomistajaryhmän mukaan jaoteltuna. Metsien kehitystä tarkastellaan vertailemalla tuloksia aiempien inventointien tuloksiin 1920-luvun alun VMI1:stä lähtien. Julkaisussa esitetään myös VMI10:ssä käytetyt mittaus- ja laskentamenetelmät. Suomen metsien puumäärä on jatkanut lisäystään. Puuston kokonaistilavuus on 2,2 miljardia kuutiometriä, kun 1920-luvun alussa nykyisen Suomen puuston määrä oli 1,4 miljardia kuutiometriä. Puuston vuotuinen kasvu oli inventointia edeltäneillä 5 vuoden mittausjaksoilla lähes 100 miljoonaa kuutiometriä. Suomen metsissä nuorien metsien osuus on suuri, mikä selittää puumäärän lisäystä ja puuston lisääntyvää kasvua. Soiden ojitus on lisännyt metsämaan alaa noin 1,5 miljoonaa hehtaaria, mikä myös selittää puuston määrän ja kasvun lisäystä. Edelliseen inventointiin verrattuna metsämaan ala on kuitenkin pienentynyt maanrakennustoiminnan vaikutuksesta. Metsien terveydentila on hyvä, vakavia tuhoja havaittiin inventoinnissa vain noin 4 %:lla metsä maan alasta. Metsähoidollinen tila on tyydyttävä – 73 % puuntuotannon metsämaan metsistä on metsänhoidolliselta tilataan hyviä tai tyydyttäviä. Nuorissa metsissä on kuitenkin aiempaa enemmän kiireelliä taimikonhoito- ja ensiharvennustarpeita. Metsä-, kitu- ja joutomaan alasta noin 2 %:lla on arvokkaita biotooppeja, jotka VMI:n maasto arvion mukaan todennäköisesti täyttävät metsälain 10 pykälän kriteerit lukuun alueellista yleisyyttä, johon VMI:n arvioinnissa ei ole otettu kantaa. Arvokkaat elinympäristöt on otettu hyvin huomioon metsien käsittelyssä. Lahopuuston määrä on edelliseen inventointiin verrattuna lisääntynyt Etelä-Suomessa, mutta näyttäisi hieman pienentyneen Pohjois-Suomessa.

Julkaisussa esitetään keskeiset metsäkeskuksittaiset metsävaratulokset VMI10:n vuosien 2004–2006 mittausaineistoihin perustuen. Tuloksia verrataan vuosina 1996–2003 tehdyn VMI9:n metsäkeskuksittaisiin tuloksiin.

Tämän julkaisun tarkoituksena on esittää keskeiset metsävaratulokset VMI10:n vuosien 2004 ja 2005 mittausaineistoihin perustuen sekä tarkastella metsävarojen kehittymistä 1996–2003 tehdyn VMI9:n jälkeen. Tulokset ja vertailut esitetään erikseen Etelä- ja Pohjois-Suomelle ja koko maalle.

National forest inventories (NFIs) are designed to provide accurate information on forest resources at the national and regional levels, but there is also a demand for such information at smaller spatial scales. Auxiliary data such as satellite imagery have been used to facilitate small-area estimation. The commonly used method, k-nearest neighbour (k-NN), provides a model-based estimator for small areas, but a design-unbiased estimator for the mean square error is not available. Post-stratification (PS) is an alternative approach to using auxiliary information that allows for design-based variance estimation. In a case study using real inventory data of the Finnish NFI, we applied this method to the municipality level to explore the lower limit to the area for which the key forest parameters, forest area and growing stock volumes, can be estimated with sufficient precision. For PS, we employed exogenous forest resources maps based on the previous NFI round. In the municipalities of the two study provinces, the relative standard errors of total volume estimates ranged from 2.3% to 26.9%. They were smaller than 10% for municipalities with an area of 390 k[m.sup.2] or larger, corresponding to approximately 100 or more sample plots on forestland. We also demonstrated the usefulness of design-unbiased variance estimation in showing discrepancies between design-based PS and model-based k-NN estimates. Key words: forest inventory, forest resources map, k-nearest neighbour, post-stratification, satellite images. Resume : Les inventaires forestiers nationaux (IFN) sont concus pour fournir des informations precises sur les ressources forestieres aux echelles nationale et regionale, mais il existe egalement une demande pour des informations semblables a des echelles spatiales plus detaillees. Des donnees auxiliaires telles que l'imagerie satellitaire ont ete utilisees pour faciliter l'estimation sur de petites superficies. La methode couramment utilisee, les k-plus proches voisins (k-PPV), fournit un estimateur synthetique base sur un modele pour les petites superficies, mais aucun plan d'experience pour un estimateur non biaise de l'erreur quadratique moyenne n'est disponible. La stratification a posteriori est une approche alternative qui utilise des informations auxiliaires et permet d'obtenir une estimation de la variance basee sur le plan d'experience. Dans une etude de cas utilisant des donnees d'inventaire reelles de l'IFN finlandais, nous avons applique cette methode a l'echelle de la municipalite pour explorer la limite inferieure de la superficie pour laquelle les parametres forestiers cles, la superficie forestiere et les volumes ligneux sur pied, peuvent etre estimes avec une precision suffisante. Pour la stratification a posteriori, nous avons utilise des cartes des ressources forestieres exogenes basees sur le cycle d'IFN precedent. Dans les municipalites des deux provinces etudiees, les erreurs-types relatives des estimations du volume total variaient de 2,3 a 26,9 %. Elles etaient inferieures a 10 % pour les municipalites d'une superficie de 390 [km.sup.2] ou plus, ce qui correspond a environ 100 parcelles d'echantillonnage ou plus en terrain forestier. Nous avons egalement demontre l'utilite de l'estimation de la variance sans biais pour montrer les ecarts entre l'estimation basee sur un plan d'experience avec une stratification a posteriori et l'estimation basee sur un modele avec les k-PPV. [Traduit par la Redaction] Mots-cles : inventaire forestier, carte des ressources forestieres, k-plus proches voisins, stratification a posteriori, imagerie satellitaire., Introduction In recent years, growing interest in forest ecosystem services, together with a boost in the bioeconomy, has increased the demand for accurate information on forest resources at smaller spatial [...]

The authors have discovered that an error was made when eq. 6 was estimated with all biomass data. The third predictor, namely crown base height, was accidentally excluded from the [...]

We studied the photosynthetic activity of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) in relation to air temperature changes from March 2013 to February 2014. We measured the chlorophyll fluorescence of approximately 50 trees of each species growing in southern Finland. Fluorescence was measured 1-3 times per week. We began by measuring shoots present in late winter (i.e., March 2013) before including new shoots once they started to elongate in spring. By July, when the spring shoots had achieved similar fluorescence levels to the older ones, we proceeded to measure the new shoots only. We analysed the data by fitting a sigmoidal model containing four parameters to link sliding averages of temperature and fluorescence. A parameter defining the temperature range over which predicted fluorescence increased most rapidly was the most informative with in describing temperature dependence of fluorescence. The model generated similar fluorescence patterns for both species, but differences were observed for critical temperature and needle age. Down regulation of the light reaction was stronger in spring than in autumn. Pine showed more conservative control of the photosynthetic light reactions, which were activated later in spring and more readily attenuated in autumn. Under the assumption of a close correlation of fluorescence and photosynthesis, spruce should therefore benefit more than pine from the increased photosynthetic potential during warmer springs, but be more likely to suffer frost damage with a sudden cooling following a warm period. The winter of 2013-2014 was unusually mild and similar to future conditions predicted by global warming models. During the mild winter, the activity of photosynthetic light reactions of both conifers, especially spruce, remained high. Because light levels during winter are too low for photosynthesis, this activity may translate to a net carbon loss due to respiration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]