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School climate measures are increasingly utilized as one indicator of school quality within educational accountability systems. However, concerns have been raised about the accuracy of these indicators given that school climate surveys are often not validated using multilevel methods. Further, cross-school comparisons in climate may not be trustworthy because the school-level invariance of climate surveys has not been investigated. There is a need to examine the validity of school-level climate constructs and to determine if surveys measure climate equitably for schools that serve underrepresented populations. The aim of the current study was to examine the multilevel factor structure of a statewide school climate survey to determine whether it measured climate equitably for students of different races/ethnicities and across schools with varying racial/ethnic and socioeconomic compositions. Participants included 259,778 students from 427 middle schools throughout a southeastern U.S. state. Cross-level invariance analyses revealed that the climate constructs were measured differently across levels of analysis, and school-level climate could not be interpreted as merely the aggregate of individual-level climate. Student- and school-level factorial invariance was tested using multilevel modeling procedures. Results revealed item bias with respect to student and school characteristics, and the relationships between school climate and student and school demographics changed after accounting for identified bias. As more educational agencies consider including school climate surveys in their accountability systems, these findings suggest that multilevel validation procedures and school-level invariance analyses are necessary to ensure accurate and equitable measurement.

In this study, we take a situationally specific approach to understanding how Black girls perceive, process, and respond to a hypothetical social situation. Through this approach, we aim to contribute to developmental inquiry that resists deficit thinking by foregrounding the voices of Black girls. The current study took place within the participatory culture-specific intervention model and involved 22 early adolescent Black girls (fifth–seventh grade). We conducted semi-structured interviews, asking them to respond to a potentially risky hypothetical situation with a male peer they have just met. Thematic analysis revealed three organizing themes: the overall goal of preserving safety and dignity, a growing ability to handle high-stakes interpersonal interactions, and the expectation of empathy and protection from the community around them. These findings challenge stereotypical portrayals of Black girls as hypersexual and aggressive and add to our understanding of the psychology of Black girls by illustrating their adaptive social decision-making.

There are many measures of student perceptions of school climate; accordingly, there is a staggering amount of research examining those perceptions and related outcomes. There is a comparatively sm...

The aim of the current study was to examine whether collective moral disengagement in the classroom was associated with bullying perpetration and victimisation. One-thousand-and-fifty-four students...

Student responses to bullying have an effect on subsequent outcomes. Dichotomous theories of coping suggest that self-reliance plays a role in responding to stress. In order to investigate ...

This study investigated associations of general and specific parental self-efficacy factors with bullying and peer victimization behaviors among 142 fourth and fifth graders and their parents. Using structural equation modeling, exploratory factor analysis was used to examine one general parenting self-efficacy measure and a bullying-specific parent self-efficacy measure. The latter produced two unique factors: (a) self-efficacy to know when one’s child is bullied, and (b) self-efficacy to respond to one’s child being bullied. Child reports of bullying and peer victimization were simultaneously regressed on the three (i.e., one general and two specific) parent self-efficacy factors. Findings revealed that parental self-efficacy to know when one’s child is bullied was uniquely and negatively associated with both bullying and victimization. Additionally, and contrary to expectations, parental self-efficacy to respond when one’s child is being bullied was uniquely and positively associated with victi...

Using an ecological model, the individual-, school-, and sociocultural-level characteristics that affect gay–straight alliance (GSA) advisors were examined in the current study. The formation of GSAs has been one way that schools have sought to improve the school climate for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth. Limited information is available about the demographics and experiences of GSA advisors who lead these clubs. GSA advisors are on the front line of LGBT advocacy in schools. The purpose of this study is to add to the minimal literature on GSA advisors by describing the demographics and the experiences of the largest known sample of GSA advisors in the research literature. In the current study, 262 GSA advisors provided information through a 67-item survey about their demographic characteristics and their experiences advocating for LGBT youth in schools. The results suggested this sample of advisors was a demographically homogenous group. Exploratory factor analysis identified two d...

The current study used a qualitative design informed by indigenous research methodologies to describe how indigenous African healers and their clients address Western-defined mental health problems. Healers for this study included Orìsà priests initiated within the Yorùbá-based system of Ifá. Two research questions guided this inquiry: (1) How do Orìsà priests and their clients conceptualize issues and concerns associated with mental health problems in Western psychology (2) What methods and techniques do Orìsà priests and their clients use to address issues and concerns associated with mental health problems in Western psychology? Data were collected during semistructured individual interviews with Orìsà priests in a three-phase model. The study also included focus groups with informants who sought the services of Orìsà priests. A combined total of 18 interviews were conducted that included 22 separate respondents residing within the southeastern United States. The following steps were employed to enhance methodological rigor: (1) bracketing of assumptions by the research team members, (2) use of a reflexive journal, (3) member checking, and (4) an audit trail. Data analysis consisted of a recursive process divided into multiple steps including codebook development, code application, and data analysis. Three major themes emerged from the data: (1) Conceptualization of Mental Health Problems as Spiritual Matters, (2) Origins of Mental Health Problems, and (3) Addressing Mental Health Problems. Results of this study indicate that respondents primarily conceptualize mental health problems as spiritual matters and seek to address these concerns with an Orìsà priest first. Practice and research implications for psychologists are discussed.

Introduction: Youth from low-income, urban backgrounds face significant challenges to maintaining a positive developmental trajectory. Dangerous neighborhoods and stressed relationships are common in these settings and threaten adaptation by weakening the natural assets that undergird resilience. African American girls in these contexts face specific, multiple risks, including gender stereotyping, violence, and sexual exploitation. The commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is a multibillion-dollar industry victimizing over 1 million children around the globe.1 The typical victim in 1 city in the southeastern United States is an African American girl 12-14 years old. There has been little research investigating the characteristics of girls placed at risk for CSEC and even less research on the personal perspectives of these girls. Methods: Over 3 school terms we provided preventive intervention groups for 36 African American middle school girls who were placed at risk because they lived in neighborhoods with high rates of interpersonal violence and CSEC. Two group leaders and a process recorder took detailed notes on each group session. Our focus on group conversations over a period of weeks increased the probability of recording spontaneous, open comments by the children and is a promising method with this population. The data were analyzed qualitatively and resulted in an account of the girls’ own views of the environmental challenges and personal experiences that may influence their development.Results: The girls’ language during the group sessions contained 4 themes: difficulty forming trusting relationships, frequent peer aggression, familiarity with adult prostitution, and sexuality as a commodity.Conclusion: Our research shows how girls placed at risk for CSEC view their own lives. These children described violence and sexual exploitation and cited limited supports to protect them from these risks. Understanding the perspectives of these girls should generate future research and intervention strategies to support their coping and resilience. [West J Emerg Med. 2013;14(4):370–376.]

Introduction: Research dedicated to identification of precursors to cases of aggravated bullying in schools has led to enhanced knowledge of risk factors for both victimization and perpetration. However, characteristics among those who are more likely to intervene in such situations are less understood. The purpose of this study is to examine the associations between demographic characteristics, school climate and psychosocial factors, and willingness to intervene in a bullying situation among middle and high school students in Georgia. Methods: We computed analyses using cross-sectional data from the Georgia Student Health Survey II (GSHS 2006) administered to public school students in grades 6, 8, 10, and 12 (n=175,311). We used logistic regression analyses to determine the demographic, school climate and psychosocial factors associated with a willingness to intervene in a bullying situation. Results: Students who were white and who were girls were most likely to report willingness to intervene in bullying situations. Several school-climate factors, such as feeling safe at school, liking school, feeling successful at school and perceiving clear rules at school, were associated with willingness to intervene, while youth who reported binge drinking were less willing to intervene. Conclusion: These findings, while preliminary, indicate that girls, students who are white, and students who experience a relatively positive school climate and adaptive psychosocial factors are more likely to report that they would intervene in bullying situations. These findings may guide how bullying is addressed in schools and underscore the importance of safe school climates. [West J Emerg Med. 2013;14(4):324–328.]

This article presents the conceptual foundations and specific features of an ecologically oriented model of school-based organizational consultation. We begin by providing an overview of ecological theory. This is followed by a brief description of a model of school-based organizational consultation with a special focus on the ecological elements of the approach. Next, several trends in educational service delivery (i.e., high-stakes educational assessment, Response to Intervention, Positive Behavior Supports, school climate, and social justice) that require substantial systemic changes are discussed. These trends highlight the need for effective ecological approaches to organizational consultation. We present recommendations regarding how an ecologically oriented model of school-based consultation might be used to facilitate systemic change efforts in relation to the educational trends discussed.

Studies suggest that African Americans experience mental health concerns at the same rate as other Americans (Constantine, Myers, & Kindaichi, 2004). However, this population tends to underutilize available counseling services (Buser, 2009). Several studies have examined treatment utilization patterns and the causes for poor treatment adherence among this population (Jackson et al., 2007; Sussman, 2004).Authors have identified a number of potential barriers to successful treatment, including cultural mistrust (Whaley, 2001), stigma regarding mental illness, racism within the therapeutic exchange (Parham, 2002), and treatment modalities failing to address the cultural values and worldview of the client (Duran, Firehammer, & Gonzalez, 2008; Myers et al., 2005). In part, because of the aforementioned barriers, African Americans often rely on informal networks of support in lieu of seeking counseling (Harley & Dillard, 2005; Parham, 2002). These networks typically include family and community resources, religious leaders, and indigenous healers (Yeh, Hunter, Madan-Bahel, Chiang, & Arora, 2004). In fact, African Americans are more likely to seek religious or spiritual experiences rather than admit to mental health concerns (Harley & Dillard, 2005). Spiritual and mental health concerns are often viewed as interconnected; therefore, religious institutions have an extensive history of providing both spiritual guidance and counseling services (Harley & Dillard, 2005). Within the African American community, indigenous African spiritual systems also have a long history of providing mental health services (Clarke, 2004). In fact, African Americans may rely on indigenous African spirituality as an alternative to Western forms of counseling (Boyd-Franklin, 2003). Although the scholarly literature has explored the therapeutic use of religion, little attention has been given to African-based spiritual systems used by African Americans as a mental health intervention (Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Constantine et al., 2004). To assist counselors in increasing their level of cultural competency, this article explores historical factors prompting African Americans to choose African-based spiritual systems when addressing mental health concerns. Specifically, an overview of Yoruba-based Ifa is presented. This article places specific focus on Ifa because it is the largest indigenous African spiritual system practiced outside of its country of origin, Southwestern Nigeria (K. Abimbola, 2006; Falola & Genova, 2005). Ifa and its diasporic manifestations are currently followed by an estimated 100 million people worldwide (K. Abimbola, 2006). Diasporic manifestations of Ifa include Candomble in Brazil, Santeria in Puerto Rico, Lucumi in Cuba, Shango in Trinidad, and Yoruba within the United States (K. Abimbola, 2006; Falola & Childs, 2004). Scholars additionally note the increasing popularity of Ifa among African Americans as a healing modality (Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Clarke, 2004; Falola & Genova, 2004). Finally, the conceptual, diagnostic, and treatment practices of Ifa are reviewed. Understanding this information will result in counselors gaining a broader knowledge base from which to work with African American Ifa adherents. This will enable clinicians to provide intervention strategies consistent with the client's beliefs regarding the etiology and treatment of mental health concerns. Providing culturally congruent interventions can result in improved treatment adherence among this population. * Factors Influencing Selection of Indigenous African Spirituality as a Healing Modality Sussman (2004) suggested that historical, social, and cultural variables influence the culturally constructed health care systems developed by members of a particular society. These cultural healing systems include collectively held knowledge and beliefs regarding the cause, manifestation, and mitigation of mental health concerns among members of that group. …

Victimization resulting from bullying affects millions of school children worldwide each year (e.g. Nansel et al., 2001; Sapouna, 2008; Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). These children face the fear and humiliation of verbal, physical, and relational aggression and as a result, often suffer psychological ill effects (e.g. Kochenderfer-Ladd, & Skinner, 2002). This study examined the coping strategies of victims of bullying using qualitative research methodology. One-hundred-and-two fourth through eighth grade students participated in group interviews discussing the topics of bullying and coping with victimization. A coping model emerged from this study that included the primary categories of problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping, and eight subcategories, self-defense, stand up to the bully, seeking social support, distancing, internalizing, tension-reduction/externalizing, focus on the positive, and self-blame. Results revealed that problem-focused coping was the type of coping most often used by victims of bullying. Externalizing and seeking social support were the most commonly reported problem-focused coping strategies used by victims. Boys discussed using externalizing strategies with greater frequency than girls, whereas girls reported seeking social support more often than boys. Results also indicated that children generally found their implemented strategies to be ineffective in resolving their problem. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

This qualitative study investigated the barriers and facilitators that advisors of gay–straight alliances encounter when advocating for LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) youth within schools. Twenty-two advisors were interviewed, and data revealed that multiple ecological systems (e.g., sociocultural, school, and individual factors) interacted to create barriers and facilitators to advocacy for LGBTQ youth. Results suggested an ecological systems perspective to advocacy in which advisors exist in multiple ecological systems simultaneously. An understanding of how these systems interact to create barriers and facilitators to advocacy may assist advisors in effectively working within these systems in order to create significant, lasting change in schools.

Teasing is a prevalent behavior in schools that can result in both positive and negative outcomes for students. This article presents an exploratory investigation into teachers' perceptions of teasing in schools, an underrepresented perspective in the literature. Semistructured interviews with 28 teachers of grades 4–8 revealed complex decision-making processes regarding how they differentiate between teasing and bullying interactions and how they select and implement interventions. These processes suggested that teachers conceptualize teasing as a prosocial or an antisocial behavior. Implications and opportunities for future research also are discussed.

The purpose of this article is to engage in the debate about Blueprint III regarding practice and graduate education in school psychology. We use school-based consultation as a lens to uncover meaning and context in the Blueprint and give particular attention to the Blueprint authors' foregrounding of prevention as a basis for school psychological services, a comprehensive consultation model for school psychological services, integration of concepts derived from positive psychology and public health in school psychology, and culture in school-based consultation. We offer suggestions to address barriers that may impede implementation of some of the worthwhile initiatives delineated in the Blueprint and develop approaches to strengthen graduate education. We conclude with a proposed agenda for research that may ground, justify, and enhance the preservice and inservice implications of Blueprint III, resulting in a substantial and well-founded impact on the field. As the authors of Blueprint III intended, we ...

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between handedness, reading skills, and reading-related cognitive processes. Although lateralised differences in brain functioning are well known, research regarding handedness, specific reading skills, and reading-related cognitive processes is ambiguous at best because handedness is often measured as a dichotomous variable rather than a continuous variable. This methodological difference contributes to the diverse research findings, therefore the present investigation addressed these methodological limitations. A large normative sample of up to 1383 participants who ranged in age from 4 to 80 completed the Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WoodcockJohnson, 1989a, 1989b) or the Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Third Edition (Woodcock, McGrew,Mather, 2001) in combination with the Dean Woodcock Sensory Motor Battery (DeanWoodcock, 2003) lateral preference scale, a continuous measure of handedness. Polynomial multiple regression analyses indicated curvilinear relationships between handedness and reading skills, along with handedness and auditory working memory. Individuals towards the extremes of the handedness continuum performed less well on the reading-related tasks. Therefore, just knowing a general classification of right, left, or mixed handed will not provide significant knowledge regarding lateralisation or potential cognitive and academic consequences but rather knowledge of an individual's hand preference on a continuum may well be useful for evaluative purposes.

SUMMARY The purpose of the Peer Victimization Intervention (PVI) was to develop and implement a culture-specific pilot intervention to address the effects of bullying on middle school students who are victims utilizing the Participatory Culture-Specific Intervention Model (PCSIM; Nastasi, Moore, & Varjas, 2004). The involvement of participants who serve as cultural brokers in the system and/or stakeholders was used to encourage acceptability, integrity, ecological validity, sustainability, and institutionalization of the intervention. The pilot intervention was conducted in an urban, multiethnic school system and implemented during the school day by a multidisciplinary team of service providers. Twenty-eight students (11 sixth graders, 13 seventh graders, 4 eighth graders) participated in a 6-session pilot intervention group. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from the students and cofacilitators of each group to assess acceptability, integrity, and efficacy. Quantitative pilot data indicate...

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, questioning, and intersex (i.e., sexual minority) youth are often targets of aggression because of their sexual identity, both in and out of schools. Literature on school-related aggression toward sexual minority youth often relies on quantitative surveys or retrospective studies. Little non-retrospective research has been done with this population investigating the nature of bullying, school climate, and the effects of being a sexual minority youth in schools. Sixteen sexual minority high school youth participated in face-to-face, in-depth interviews. Results for the themes from these interviews are presented in four categories: Sexual minorities' overall perspective on their school climate, the nature of aggression in schools against sexual minorities when present, the characteristics of the victims and bullies, and the consequences of being a sexual minority in schools. These youth's perspectives provide support for existing literature on the nature of bull...

Teachers know that when families are involved meaningfully in schools, students perform better in academic, behavioral, and emotional domains. This article describes a project designed to enhance the quality of children's literacy interactions with family members and simultaneously increase family involvement at school. The level of participation of a classroom teacher is key in implementing a family literacy support program in a low-income neighborhood.

Existing literature details many forms of harassment against sexual minority youth, including those behaviors that are present in schools. School and community service providers, such as counselors and psychologists, often witness first-hand the bullying that occurs in schools. Through their direct contact with sexual minority youth, they remain knowledgeable of current school environments facing these youth. Their perspectives on bullying of this population, however, are lacking. Sixteen school and community service providers participated in face-to-face, in-depth interviews regarding their perceptions and observations of general bullying and specific bullying of GLBTQI youth. The principles of grounded theory are used to analyze the data, which resulted in themes on bullying of GLQ youth. Results on these themes are presented in six main categories: Types and Locations of Bullying, Characteristics of Victims, Characteristics of Bullies, Effects of Bullying, Victim Response, and “Non-Targets.” T...

This article underscores the potential advantages of qualitative methods to illustrate the depth and complexity of social validity. This investigation evaluates the social validity of Check and Connect with Early Literacy Support (CCEL) , through the perspectives of teachers and caregivers whose children participated in the intervention. Teachers from six classrooms and caregivers from six families participated in evaluating the social validity of this intervention using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Participants completed the Treatment Acceptability Rating Scale—Revised ( TARF-R ; Reimers, T. M., Wacker, D. P., Cooper, L. J. & DeRaad, A. O. (1992). Clinical evaluation of the variables associated with treatment acceptability and their relation to compliance. Behavioral Disorders , 18(1), 67–76.), a quantitative measure of treatment acceptability (a component of social validity), and were interviewed using qualitative interviews and focus groups. Results were analyzed through ethnographic methodology and indicate complex, reciprocal relationships among factors related to social validity. This investigation is considered in light of recent efforts to develop a systematic approach to evaluate the adequacy of intervention research using qualitative methods.

The Invitational Conference on the Future of School Psychology held at Indiana University in 2002 had implications for consultation. It addressed projected shortages in school psychologists that provide a rationale for service delivery models integrating consultation and prevention. The conference discussed the need for effective work with children, families, and professionals from diverse cultures; success in fostering productive home-school connections; optimal and ethical use of rapidly changing technologies; and the use of empirical evidence to inform practice. This article presents a model of consultation and prevention informed by recent research in positive psychology as well as public health models. This model is discussed in the context of these and other important developments in the field of school psychology.

Authors of recent reports have concluded that U.S. educational reform has ignored special education (President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 2002). Little is known, however, about how local educational reform efforts consider special education when making decisions that may affect students in special education or special educators. The authors of this study examined the relationships between general education reform and special education by using focused analysis of qualitative data collected through a 3-year, comprehensive project in a suburban district that adopted shared decision-making (SDM) teams and site-based management. Data sources included observations of 86 SDM team meetings and interviews with team members and special educators. Findings from primary, middle, and high schools illustrated that there was little connection between general education reform and special education. Specifically, SDM teams seldom discussed special education. Most team members and special educators did not believe that special education was represented in team discussions. Some strategies for representing special education on SDM teams were occasionally effective (e.g., assigning a team member to represent special education for a specific topic). These findings have important implications for education policy because they are consistent with the 2002 report by the President's Commission. The authors also offer suggestions for future research and practice.

The Invitational Conference on the Future of School Psychology held at Indiana University in Fall 2002 included a number of paper presentations and group discussions. Toward the end of the conferen...

The present study addresses school violence and school drop out and proposes that the underlying factor of school connectedness/school climate should guide preventive and intervention efforts. Data were gathered from five schools in a small city school district in north Georgia. Group and individual interviews served as the basis for constructing a 78-item district-wide survey administered to 304 school employees. Data are presented on individual items from the survey. Principal components analysis revealed five distinct factors: school connectedness/positive school climate, causes of violence, causes of school drop out, interventions for drop out, and interventions for violence. The principal components analysis was the basis for construction of a revised scale. Differences between revised scale scores were noted as a function of whether respondents were from central office, elementary or secondary schools. The five revised scales had correlation ranging from .31 to .59. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Student perceptions of school climate represent the ways students feel about the school environment. These include perceptions regarding safety, teaching and learning, and relationships within the school. It has been found that student perceptions of school climate are positively correlated with academic achievement (Brookover et al., 1978), and negatively correlated with risky behaviors (Bandyopadhyay, Cornell, & Konold, 2009; Bayar & Ucanok, 2012; Wang, Berry, & Swearer, 2013). The Georgia Brief School Climate Inventory (GaBSCI) is a measure of student perceptions of school climate. The brevity of the 9-item instrument makes it ideal as a general measure that can be used to monitor student perceptions of school climate. The survey was anonymously administered to 130,968 sixth- and eighth-grade students in the state of Georgia. Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.71. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses verified the scale's structure. Student perceptions of climate from the GaBSCI varied based on race/ethnicity, gender, and grade. Additional support for the construct validity of the GaBSCI was obtained based on its relationships with several behaviors related to bullying, and the moderating effects of grade and gender on these relationships. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Despite recent attention to shared decision making as an approach to school reform, relatively little research has been conducted on the topic, and much of that research has relied on interviews and field notes, rather than systematic observation of team functioning. This investigation integrated systematic observations and interviews. The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership behaviors exhibited by principals, team leaders, and other team members (teachers, parents, students). We defined leadership according to team member contributions to decisions (decision content, decision-making processes, and statement function, such as initiating topics and making suggestions). This investigation used a comparative case study approach to examine the shared decision-making teams from three schools during the teams' first year. Results revealed variability in leadership across the three teams. Two teams were characterized by positive group process procedures with active involvement from a number of te...

The research and practice of consultation, by nature and definition, affect people from across the range of human diversity. The emergent literature of cross-cultural consultation, including the co...

This article provides an introduction to the mini-series theme, Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Consultation in Schools: Cultural Diversity Issues in School Consultation. It discusses the context,...

Recently, developmentally appropriate practices have been distinguished from traditional practices and have been advocated as one way to reform primary general education classrooms. Relatively little research has examined the efficacy of developmentally appropriate versus traditional practices. In particular, concerns have been raised about the effectiveness of this approach for students with disabilities. This study examined the relationship between primary teachers' implementation of developmentally appropriate and traditional teaching methods and the mathematics achievement of general and special education students. Observations, interviews and questionnaires were used to measure the mathematics teaching practices used with general and special education students. Because developmentally appropriate and traditional teaching practices are often characterized in terms of a continuum, principal components methods were used to generate continuous composite variables that described teacher presentation, mate...

This research addressed two questions about instruction to enhance the social competence of students with disabilities: (a) How adequate were individualized education program (IEP) statements of present level of functioning and goals related to peer interactions? and (b) How appropriate to pupil peer interaction needs and how extensive was instruction? Data sources included IEPs; observations of pupils and teachers in content area, special area, and special education settings; and interviews. Analysis indicated that the IEP accurately characterized peer interactions, but that instructional practices to foster peer interaction were not appropriate, and were provided only to a limited extent. General education settings were somewhat more likely than special education settings to foster peer interaction, providing support for claims that inclusion fosters social integration.

Prereferral intervention teams provide consultation to teachers using a problem-solving process to better serve students, provide teachers with skills to assist future students, and prevent inappro...

(1997). A Novel Methodology for Describing Integration Practices. Exceptionality: Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 263-266.

Prereferral intervention is an approach to the prevention of special education problems that, although frequently recommended in recent years, has not received sufficient attention as a research topic. The purpose of this article is to provide data descriptive of the typical procedures and the collaborative problem-solving processes used by the prereferral intervention teams in eight urban schools. In addition to describing the model and its implementation, this article provides data indicating educators' perceptions of the goals of these teams, and their strengths and weaknesses, as well as describing the nature of consultation that is provided to classroom teachers and offering recommendations for improving these teams. The qualitative data sources used in this research included surveys, interviews, and team observations. Surveys were administered to team members and teachers, followed by interviews with these two groups. This resulted in 134 surveys and 91 interviews that were available for analysis. A...

A positive attitude toward mainstreaming or inclusion among general education teachers is necessary, although not sufficient, for the success of the Regular Education Initiative. Previous research assessing general education teacher views is limited by an emphasis on questionnaire methodology and failure to account for teacher experience with integrated programs. This study sought to overcome these limitations by using interviews supplemented by a range of qualitative data to clarify the context in which the data were gathered. In this study, the views of general education teachers participating in integrated pull-in programs were compared to those of colleagues whose students were served by pull-out programs. Support for integrated programs and novel categories of responses emerged in this process, as did group differences. Pull-in teachers stressed that pull-in met student needs and provided benefits to the teacher and the class, whereas pull-out teachers were less positive about pull-in and emphasized ...

(1996). The Role of the Researcher as Change Agent. Exceptionality: Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 125-128.

This article reviews Meyers' 1973 article, 'A Consultation Model for School Psychological Services,' which proposed a model of school-based consultation. Key components from the original article are discussed, including: (a) four variables reflecting the process of interaction between consultant and consultee and (b) a description of the content of consultation based on four different approaches to school-based consultation. Each of these components is discussed by considering how it is used in schools, how it has evolved in the past 20 years, and how it is conceptualized at the present time. Particular focus is given to the influence of current social conditions and to directions for research regarding school-based consultation.