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Astrocytes in the brain exhibit regional heterogeneity contributing to regional circuits involved in higher-order brain functions, yet the mechanisms controlling their distribution remain unclear. Here, we show that the precise allocation of astrocytes to specific brain regions during development is achieved through transcription factor 4 (Tcf4)-mediated fate restriction based on their embryonic origin. Loss of Tcf4 in ventral telencephalic neural progenitor cells alters the fate of oligodendrocyte precursor cells to transient intermediate astrocyte precursor cells, resulting in mislocalized astrocytes in the dorsal neocortex. These ectopic astrocytes engage with neocortical neurons and acquire features reminiscent of dorsal neocortical astrocytes. Furthermore, Tcf4 functions as a suppressor of astrocyte fate during the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells derived from the ventral telencephalon, thereby restricting the fate to the oligodendrocyte lineage in the dorsal neocortex. Together, our findings highlight a previously unappreciated role for Tcf4 in regulating astrocyte allocation, offering additional insights into the mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders linked to Tcf4 mutations. Synopsis: Astrocytes in the brain exhibit significant regional diversity, but the mechanisms controlling their heterogeneity remain unclear. This study demonstrates that transcription factor 4 (Tcf4) regulates astrocyte allocation to specific brain regions through fate restriction based on their embryonic origin. Loss of Tcf4 in the Nkx2.1 lineage results in ectopic astrocytes in the dorsal neocortex. Tcf4-deficient ectopic astrocytes with ventral origin can adapt to the local neocortical environment engaging with nearby neurons. Tcf4 suppresses the expression of genes related to astrocytogenesis in the Nkx2.1 lineage of the dorsal neocortex. Transcription factor Tcf4 confines precursor cell fate and determines regional astrocyte diversification during brain development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • A high-fat diet influences neural stem and progenitor cell in the medulla of adult mice. • Short-term high-fat diet promoted proliferation of neural progenitor cells. • Short-term high-fat diet promoted proliferation of glial cells. • Long-term high-fat diet induced microglia iNOS in the medulla. It has been widely established that neural stem cells (NSCs) exist in the adult mammalian brain. The area postrema (AP) and the ependymal cell layer of the central canal (CC) in the medulla were recently identified as NSC niches. There are two types of NSCs: astrocyte-like cells in the AP and tanycyte-like cells in the CC. However, limited information is currently available on the characteristics and functional significance of these NSCs and their progeny in the AP and CC. The AP is a part of the dorsal vagal complex (DVC), together with the nucleus of the solitary tract (Sol) and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (10 N). DVC is the primary site for the integration of visceral neuronal and hormonal cues that act to inhibit food intake. Therefore, we examined the effects of high-fat diet (HFD) on NSCs and progenitor cells in the AP and CC. Eight-week-old male mice were fed HFD for short (1 week) and long periods (4 weeks). To detect proliferating cells, mice consecutively received intraperitoneal injections of BrdU for 7 days. Brain sections were processed with immunohistochemistry using various cell markers and BrdU antibodies. Our data demonstrated that adult NSCs and neural progenitor cells (NPCs) in the medulla responded more strongly to short-term HFD than to long-term HFD. HFD increased astrocyte density in the Sol and 10 N, and increased microglial/macrophage density in the AP and Sol. Furthermore, long-term HFD induced mild inflammation in the medulla, suggesting that it affected the proliferation of NSCs and NPCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitochondria are unique organelles that have their own genome (mtDNA) and perform various pivotal functions within a cell. Recently, evidence has highlighted the role of mitochondria in the process of stem cell differentiation, including differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs). Here we studied the importance of mtDNA function in the early differentiation process of NSCs in two cell culture models: the CGR8‐NS cell line that was derived from embryonic stem cells by a lineage selection technique, and primary NSCs that were isolated from embryonic day 14 mouse fetal forebrain. We detected a dramatic increase in mtDNA content upon NSC differentiation to adapt their mtDNA levels to their differentiated state, which was not accompanied by changes in mitochondrial transcription factor A expression. As chemical mtDNA depletion by ethidium bromide failed to generate living ρ° cell lines from both NSC types, we used inhibition of mtDNA polymerase‐γ by 2′‐3′‐dideoxycytidine to reduce mtDNA replication and subsequently cellular mtDNA content. Inhibition of mtDNA replication upon NSC differentiation reduced neurogenesis but not gliogenesis. The mtDNA depletion did not change energy production/consumption or cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in the NSC model used. In conclusion, mtDNA replication is essential for neurogenesis but not gliogenesis in fetal NSCs through as yet unknown mechanisms, which, however, are largely independent of energy/ROS metabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Nervous systems of bilaterian animals generally consist of two cell types: neurons and glial cells. Despite accumulating data about the many important functions glial cells serve in bilaterian nervous systems, the evolutionary origin of this abundant cell type remains unclear. Current hypotheses regarding glial evolution are mostly based on data from model bilaterians. Non-bilaterian animals have been largely overlooked in glial studies and have been subjected only to morphological analysis. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of conservation of the bilateral gliogenic genetic repertoire of non-bilaterian phyla (Cnidaria, Placozoa, Ctenophora, and Porifera). We overview molecular and functional features of bilaterian glial cell types and discuss their possible evolutionary history. We then examine which glial features are present in non-bilaterians. Of these, cnidarians show the highest degree of gliogenic program conservation and may therefore be crucial to answer questions about glial evolution.

Nervous systems of bilaterian animals generally consist of two cell types: neurons and glial cells. Despite accumulating data about the many important functions glial cells serve in bilaterian nervous systems, the evolutionary origin of this abundant cell type remains unclear. Current hypotheses regarding glial evolution are mostly based on data from model bilaterians. Non-bilaterian animals have been largely overlooked in glial studies and have been subjected only to morphological analysis. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of conservation of the bilateral gliogenic genetic repertoire of non-bilaterian phyla (Cnidaria, Placozoa, Ctenophora, and Porifera). We overview molecular and functional features of bilaterian glial cell types and discuss their possible evolutionary history. We then examine which glial features are present in non-bilaterians. Of these, cnidarians show the highest degree of gliogenic program conservation and may therefore be crucial to answer questions about glial evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During development, neural stem cells in the cerebral cortex, also known as radial glial cells (RGCs), generate excitatory neurons, followed by production of cortical macroglia and inhibitory neurons that migrate to the olfactory bulb (OB). Understanding the mechanisms for this lineage switch is fundamental for unraveling how proper numbers of diverse neuronal and glial cell types are controlled. We and others recently showed that Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling promotes the cortical RGC lineage switch to generate cortical oligodendrocytes and OB interneurons. During this process, cortical RGCs generate intermediate progenitor cells that express critical gliogenesis genes Ascll, Egfr, and Olig2. The increased Ascll expression and appearance of Egfr+ and Olig2+ cortical progenitors are concurrent with the switch from excitatory neurogenesis to gliogenesis and OB interneuron neurogenesis in the cortex. While Shh signaling promotes Olig2 expression in the developing spinal cord, the exact mechanism for this transcriptional regulation is not known. Furthermore, the transcriptional regulation of Olig2 and Egfr has not been explored. Here, we show that in cortical progenitor cells, multiple regu-latory programs, including Pax6 and Gli3, prevent precocious expression of Olig2, a gene essential for production of cortical oligodendrocytes and astrocytes. We identify multiple enhancers that control Olig2 expression in cortical progenitors and show that the mechanisms for regulating Olig2 expression are conserved between the mouse and human. Our study reveals evolutionarily conserved regulatory logic controlling the lineage switch of cortical neural stem cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by alterations in the development of the cerebral cortex, including aberrant changes in the number and function of neural cells. Although neurogenesis is one of the most studied cellular processes in these pathologies, little evidence is known about glial development. Genetic association studies have identified several genes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Indeed, variations in the PTPRD gene have been associated with numerous brain disorders, including autism spectrum disorder, restless leg syndrome, and schizophrenia. We previously demonstrated that constitutive loss of PTPRD expression induces significant alterations in cortical neurogenesis, promoting an increase in intermediate progenitors and neurons in mice. However, its role in gliogenesis has not been evaluated. To assess this, we developed a conditional knockout mouse model lacking PTPRD expression in telencephalon cells. Here, we found that the lack of PTPRD in the mouse cortex reduces glial precursors, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. According to our results, this decrease in gliogenesis resulted from a reduced number of radial glia cells at gliogenesis onset and a lower gliogenic potential in cortical neural precursors due to less activation of the JAK/STAT pathway and reduced expression of gliogenic genes. Our study shows PTPRD as a regulator of the glial/neuronal balance during cortical neurodevelopment and highlights the importance of studying glial development to understand the etiology of neurodevelopmental diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review, we explore the intriguing realm of neurogenesis in the vestibular nuclei—a critical brainstem region governing balance and spatial orientation. We retrace almost 20 years of research into vestibular neurogenesis, from its discovery in the feline model in 2007 to the recent discovery of a vestibular neural stem cell niche. We explore the reasons why neurogenesis is important in the vestibular nuclei and the triggers for activating the vestibular neurogenic niche. We develop the symbiotic relationship between neurogenesis and gliogenesis to promote vestibular compensation. Finally, we examine the potential impact of reactive neurogenesis on vestibular compensation, highlighting its role in restoring balance through various mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A developing nervous system is particularly vulnerable to the influence of pathophysiological clues and injuries in the perinatal period. Astrocytes are among the first cells that react to insults against the nervous tissue, the presence of pathogens, misbalance of local tissue homeostasis, and a lack of oxygen and trophic support. Under this background, it remains uncertain if induced astrocyte activation, recognized as astrogliosis, is a friend or foe for progressing neonatal neurodevelopment. Likewise, the state of astrocyte reactivity is considered one of the key factors discriminating between either the initiation of endogenous reparative mechanisms compensating for aberrations in the structures and functions of nervous tissue or the triggering of neurodegeneration. The responses of activated cells are modulated by neighboring neural cells, which exhibit broad immunomodulatory and pro-regenerative properties by secreting a plethora of active compounds (including interleukins and chemokines, neurotrophins, reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide synthase and complement components), which are engaged in cell crosstalk in a paracrine manner. As the developing nervous system is extremely sensitive to the influence of signaling molecules, even subtle changes in the composition or concentration of the cellular secretome can have significant effects on the developing neonatal brain. Thus, modulating the activity of other types of cells and their interactions with overreactive astrocytes might be a promising strategy for controlling neonatal astrogliosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) is a socially monogamous rodent that establishes an enduring pair bond after cohabitation, with (6 h) or without (24 h) mating. Previously, we reported that social interaction and mating increased cell proliferation and differentiation to neuronal fate in neurogenic niches in male voles. We hypothesized that neurogenesis may be a neural plasticity mechanism involved in mating-induced pair bond formation. Here, we evaluated the differentiation potential of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of both female and male adult voles as a function of sociosexual experience. Animals were assigned to one of the following groups: (1) control (Co), sexually naive female and male voles that had no contact with another vole of the opposite sex; (2) social exposure (SE), males and females exposed to olfactory, auditory, and visual stimuli from a vole of the opposite sex, but without physical contact; and (3) social cohabitation with mating (SCM), male and female voles copulating to induce pair bonding formation. Subsequently, the NPCs were isolated from the SVZ, maintained, and supplemented with growth factors to form neurospheres in vitro. Results Notably, we detected in SE and SCM voles, a higher proliferation of neurosphere-derived Nestin + cells, as well as an increase in mature neurons (MAP2 +) and a decrease in glial (GFAP +) differentiated cells with some sex differences. These data suggest that when voles are exposed to sociosexual experiences that induce pair bonding, undifferentiated cells of the SVZ acquire a commitment to a neuronal lineage, and the determined potential of the neurosphere is conserved despite adaptations under in vitro conditions. Finally, we repeated the culture to obtain neurospheres under treatments with different hormones and factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, estradiol, prolactin, oxytocin, and progesterone); the ability of SVZ-isolated cells to generate neurospheres and differentiate in vitro into neurons or glial lineages in response to hormones or factors is also dependent on sex and sociosexual context. Conclusion Social interactions that promote pair bonding in voles change the properties of cells isolated from the SVZ. Thus, SE or SCM induces a bias in the differentiation potential in both sexes, while SE is sufficient to promote proliferation in SVZ-isolated cells from male brains. In females, proliferation increases when mating is performed. The next question is whether the rise in proliferation and neurogenesis of cells from the SVZ are plastic processes essential for establishing, enhancing, maintaining, or accelerating pair bond formation. Highlights 1. Sociosexual experiences that promote pair bonding (social exposure and social cohabitation with mating) induce changes in the properties of neural stem/progenitor cells isolated from the SVZ in adult prairie voles. 2. Social interactions lead to increased proliferation and induce a bias in the differentiation potential of SVZ-isolated cells in both male and female voles. 3. The differentiation potential of SVZ-isolated cells is conserved under in vitro conditions, suggesting a commitment to a neuronal lineage under a sociosexual context. 4. Hormonal and growth factors treatments (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, estradiol, prolactin, oxytocin, and progesterone) affect the generation and differentiation of neurospheres, with dependencies on sex and sociosexual context. 5. Proliferation and neurogenesis in the SVZ may play a crucial role in establishing, enhancing, maintaining, or accelerating pair bond formation.

Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by alterations in the development of the cerebral cortex, including aberrant changes in the number and function of neural cells. Although neurogenesis is one of the most studied cellular processes in these pathologies, little evidence is known about glial development. Genetic association studies have identified several genes associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Indeed, variations in the PTPRD gene have been associated with numerous brain disorders, including autism spectrum disorder, restless leg syndrome, and schizophrenia. We previously demonstrated that constitutive loss of PTPRD expression induces significant alterations in cortical neurogenesis, promoting an increase in intermediate progenitors and neurons in mice. However, its role in gliogenesis has not been evaluated. To assess this, we developed a conditional knockout mouse model lacking PTPRD expression in telencephalon cells. Here, we found that the lack of PTPRD in the mouse cortex reduces glial precursors, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. According to our results, this decrease in gliogenesis resulted from a reduced number of radial glia cells at gliogenesis onset and a lower gliogenic potential in cortical neural precursors due to less activation of the JAK/STAT pathway and reduced expression of gliogenic genes. Our study shows PTPRD as a regulator of the glial/neuronal balance during cortical neurodevelopment and highlights the importance of studying glial development to understand the etiology of neurodevelopmental diseases.

Background: The prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) is a socially monogamous rodent that establishes an enduring pair bond after cohabitation, with (6 h) or without (24 h) mating. Previously, we reported that social interaction and mating increased cell proliferation and differentiation to neuronal fate in neurogenic niches in male voles. We hypothesized that neurogenesis may be a neural plasticity mechanism involved in mating-induced pair bond formation. Here, we evaluated the differentiation potential of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) isolated from the subventricular zone (SVZ) of both female and male adult voles as a function of sociosexual experience. Animals were assigned to one of the following groups: (1) control (Co), sexually naive female and male voles that had no contact with another vole of the opposite sex; (2) social exposure (SE), males and females exposed to olfactory, auditory, and visual stimuli from a vole of the opposite sex, but without physical contact; and (3) social cohabitation with mating (SCM), male and female voles copulating to induce pair bonding formation. Subsequently, the NPCs were isolated from the SVZ, maintained, and supplemented with growth factors to form neurospheres in vitro. Results: Notably, we detected in SE and SCM voles, a higher proliferation of neurosphere-derived Nestin + cells, as well as an increase in mature neurons (MAP2 +) and a decrease in glial (GFAP +) differentiated cells with some sex differences. These data suggest that when voles are exposed to sociosexual experiences that induce pair bonding, undifferentiated cells of the SVZ acquire a commitment to a neuronal lineage, and the determined potential of the neurosphere is conserved despite adaptations under in vitro conditions. Finally, we repeated the culture to obtain neurospheres under treatments with different hormones and factors (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, estradiol, prolactin, oxytocin, and progesterone); the ability of SVZ-isolated cells to generate neurospheres and differentiate in vitro into neurons or glial lineages in response to hormones or factors is also dependent on sex and sociosexual context. Conclusion: Social interactions that promote pair bonding in voles change the properties of cells isolated from the SVZ. Thus, SE or SCM induces a bias in the differentiation potential in both sexes, while SE is sufficient to promote proliferation in SVZ-isolated cells from male brains. In females, proliferation increases when mating is performed. The next question is whether the rise in proliferation and neurogenesis of cells from the SVZ are plastic processes essential for establishing, enhancing, maintaining, or accelerating pair bond formation. Highlights Sociosexual experiences that promote pair bonding (social exposure and social cohabitation with mating) induce changes in the properties of neural stem/progenitor cells isolated from the SVZ in adult prairie voles. Social interactions lead to increased proliferation and induce a bias in the differentiation potential of SVZ-isolated cells in both male and female voles. The differentiation potential of SVZ-isolated cells is conserved under in vitro conditions, suggesting a commitment to a neuronal lineage under a sociosexual context. Hormonal and growth factors treatments (brain-derived neurotrophic factor, estradiol, prolactin, oxytocin, and progesterone) affect the generation and differentiation of neurospheres, with dependencies on sex and sociosexual context. Proliferation and neurogenesis in the SVZ may play a crucial role in establishing, enhancing, maintaining, or accelerating pair bond formation. Plain language summary: In this study, researchers evaluated whether social interactions and copulation induce changes in the proliferation and differentiation of neural progenitor cells in adult male and female voles using an in vitro neurosphere formation assay. The following groups were assigned: control animals without any exposure to another vole outside their litter, another group with social exposure consisting of sensory exposure to a vole of the opposite sex and a third group with social cohabitation and copulation. Forty eight hours after social interactions, cells were isolated from the neurogenic niche subventricular zone (SVZ) and cultured to assess their self-renewal and proliferation abilities to form neurospheres. The results showed in the social interaction groups, a greater number and growth of neurospheres in both males and females. Differentiation capacity was assessed by immunodetection of MAP2 and GFAP to identify neurons or glia, respectively, arise from neurospheres, with an increase in neuronal fate in groups with social interaction. In the second part of the study, the researchers analyzed the effect of different hormone and growth factor treatments and found that the response in both proliferation and differentiation potential may vary depending on the sociosexual context or sex. This study suggests that social interactions leading to pair bond formation alter the properties of SVZ cells, whereby proliferation and neurogenesis may have an impact on the establishment and maintenance of pair bonding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been widely studied due to its association with Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the physiological functions of APP are still largely unexplored. APP is a transmembrane glycoprotein whose expression in humans is abundant in the central nervous system. Specifically, several studies have revealed the high expression of APP during brain development. Previous studies in our laboratory revealed that a transient increase in APP expression induces early cell cycle exit of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) and directs their differentiation towards glial cells (gliogenesis) while decreasing their differentiation towards neurons (neurogenesis). In the present study, we have evaluated the intrinsic cellular effects of APP down-expression (using siRNA) on cell death, cell proliferation, and cell fate specification of hNSCs. Our data indicate that APP silencing causes cellular effects opposite to those obtained in previous APP overexpression assays, inducing cell proliferation in hNS1 cells (a model line of hNSCs) and favoring neurogenesis instead of gliogenesis in these cells. In addition, we have analyzed the gene and protein expression levels of β-Catenin as a possible molecule involved in these cellular effects. These data could help to understand the biological role of APP, which is necessary to deepen the knowledge of AD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have focused on the pathophysiological role of amyloid precursor protein (APP) because the proteolytic processing of APP to β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide is a central event in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, many authors consider that alterations in the physiological functions of APP are likely to play a key role in AD. Previous studies in our laboratory revealed that APP plays an important role in the differentiation of human neural stem cells (hNSCs), favoring glial differentiation (gliogenesis) and preventing their differentiation toward a neuronal phenotype (neurogenesis). In the present study, we have evaluated the effects of APP overexpression in hNSCs at a global gene level by a transcriptomic analysis using the massive RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. Specifically, we have focused on differentially expressed genes that are related to neuronal and glial differentiation processes, as well as on groups of differentially expressed genes associated with different signaling pathways, in order to find a possible interaction between them and APP. Our data indicate a differential expression in genes related to Notch, Wnt, PI3K-AKT, and JAK-STAT signaling, among others. Knowledge of APP biological functions, as well as the possible signaling pathways that could be related to this protein, are essential to advance our understanding of AD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This study was aimed to explore the role of brain-derived estrogen (BDE2) in hippocampal neurogenesis with aging in female rats. Our results revealed that cell differentiation was significantly declined over the middle age (14-Mon), while the differentiation of astrocytes and microglia markedly elevated and exhibited excessive activation. The newborn immature neurons clustered in hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ) area in 1-Mon juvenile, then sharply dropped thereafter and the number of neural stem cells declined over 14-Mon age. Female forebrain neuronal aromatase knockout (FBN-ARO-KO) rats showed declined neurogenesis in dentate gyrus (DG) region at 1, 6 and 18-Mon ages, compared to WT controls. In addition, letrozole suppressed neurogenesis at 1-Mon age. On the contrary, astrogenesis was elevated over middle age and FBN-ARO-KO promoted the differentiation and activation of astrocytes and microglia in the DG region. FBN-ARO-KO rats also displayed decreased levels of CREB-BDNF signal and cognitive-related proteins, as well as impaired spatial learning and memory in juvenile (1 Mon) and adulthood (6 Mon). Our results suggest that long-term shortage of aromatase-BDE2 signaling may accelerate brain inflammation by increase local gliogenesis and activation, and that BDE2 plays a key role for the maintaining of hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive function. Although 17β-estradiol (E2) can be locally synthesized in the brain, whether and how brain-derived E2 (BDE2) impacts neurogenesis with aging is largely unclear. In this study, we examined the hippocampal neural stem cells, neurogenesis, and gliogenesis of 1, 3, 6, 14, and 18-month (Mon) female rats. Female forebrain neuronal aromatase knockout (FBN-ARO-KO) rats and letrozole-treated rats were also employed. We demonstraed that (1) the number of neural stem cells declined over 14-Mon age, and the differentiation of astrocytes and microglia markedly elevated and exhibited excessive activation. KO rats showed declines in astrocyte A2 subtype and elevation in A1 subtype at 18 Mon; (2) neurogenesis sharply dropped from 1-Mon age; (3) KO suppressed dentate gyrus (DG) neurogenesis at 1, 6 and 18 Mon. Additionally, KO and letrozole treatment led to declined neurogenesis at 1-Mon age, compared to age-matched WT controls; (4) FBN-ARO-KO inhibited CREB-BDNF activation, and decreased protein levels of neurofilament, spinophilin and PSD95. Notably, hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory was impaired in juvenile (1 Mon) and adulthood (6 Mon) KO rats. Taken together, we demonstrated that BDE2 plays a pivotal role for hippocampal neurogenesis, as well as learning and memory during female aging, especially in juvenile and middle age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The underlying mechanisms that determine gene expression and chromatin accessibility in retinogenesis are poorly understood. Herein, single‐cell RNA sequencing and single‐cell assay for transposase‐accessible chromatin sequencing are performed on human embryonic eye samples obtained 9–26 weeks after conception to explore the heterogeneity of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) and neurogenic RPCs. The differentiation trajectory from RPCs to 7 major types of retinal cells are verified. Subsequently, diverse lineage‐determining transcription factors are identified and their gene regulatory networks are refined at the transcriptomic and epigenomic levels. Treatment of retinospheres, with the inhibitor of RE1 silencing transcription factor, X5050, induces more neurogenesis with the regular arrangement, and a decrease in Müller glial cells. The signatures of major retinal cells and their correlation with pathogenic genes associated with multiple ocular diseases, including uveitis and age‐related macular degeneration are also described. A framework for the integrated exploration of single‐cell developmental dynamics of the human primary retina is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The retina is a highly specialized tissue composed of a network of neurons, glia, and vascular and epithelial cells; all working together to coordinate and transduce visual signals to the brain. The retinal extracellular matrix (ECM) shapes the structural environment in the retina but also supplies resident cells with proper chemical and mechanical signals to regulate cell function and behavior and maintain tissue homeostasis. As such, the ECM affects virtually all aspects of retina development, function and pathology. ECM-derived regulatory cues influence intracellular signaling and cell function. Reversibly, changes in intracellular signaling programs result in alteration of the ECM and downstream ECM-mediated signaling network. Our functional studies in vitro, genetic studies in mice, and multi omics analyses have provided evidence that a subset of ECM proteins referred to as cellular communication network (CCN) affects several aspects of retinal neuronal and vascular development and function. Retinal progenitor, glia and vascular cells are major sources of CCN proteins particularly CCN1 and CCN2. We found that expression of the CCN1 and CCN2 genes is dependent on the activity of YAP, the core component of the hippo-YAP signaling pathway. Central to the Hippo pathway is a conserved cascade of inhibitory kinases that regulate the activity of YAP, the final transducer of this pathway. Reversibly, YAP expression and/or activity is dependent on CCN1 and CCN2 downstream signaling, which creates a positive or negative feedforward loop driving developmental processes (e.g., neurogenesis, gliogenesis, angiogenesis, barriergenesis) and, when dysregulated, disease progression in a range of retinal neurovascular disorders. Here we describe mechanistic hints involving the CCN–Hippo–YAP regulatory axis in retina development and function. This regulatory pathway represents an opportunity for targeted therapies in neurovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The underlying mechanisms that determine gene expression and chromatin accessibility in retinogenesis are poorly understood. Herein, single‐cell RNA sequencing and single‐cell assay for transposase‐accessible chromatin sequencing are performed on human embryonic eye samples obtained 9–26 weeks after conception to explore the heterogeneity of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) and neurogenic RPCs. The differentiation trajectory from RPCs to 7 major types of retinal cells are verified. Subsequently, diverse lineage‐determining transcription factors are identified and their gene regulatory networks are refined at the transcriptomic and epigenomic levels. Treatment of retinospheres, with the inhibitor of RE1 silencing transcription factor, X5050, induces more neurogenesis with the regular arrangement, and a decrease in Müller glial cells. The signatures of major retinal cells and their correlation with pathogenic genes associated with multiple ocular diseases, including uveitis and age‐related macular degeneration are also described. A framework for the integrated exploration of single‐cell developmental dynamics of the human primary retina is provided.

In this review, we explore the intriguing realm of neurogenesis in the vestibular nuclei—a critical brainstem region governing balance and spatial orientation. We retrace almost 20 years of research into vestibular neurogenesis, from its discovery in the feline model in 2007 to the recent discovery of a vestibular neural stem cell niche. We explore the reasons why neurogenesis is important in the vestibular nuclei and the triggers for activating the vestibular neurogenic niche. We develop the symbiotic relationship between neurogenesis and gliogenesis to promote vestibular compensation. Finally, we examine the potential impact of reactive neurogenesis on vestibular compensation, highlighting its role in restoring balance through various mechanisms.

A developing nervous system is particularly vulnerable to the influence of pathophysiological clues and injuries in the perinatal period. Astrocytes are among the first cells that react to insults against the nervous tissue, the presence of pathogens, misbalance of local tissue homeostasis, and a lack of oxygen and trophic support. Under this background, it remains uncertain if induced astrocyte activation, recognized as astrogliosis, is a friend or foe for progressing neonatal neurodevelopment. Likewise, the state of astrocyte reactivity is considered one of the key factors discriminating between either the initiation of endogenous reparative mechanisms compensating for aberrations in the structures and functions of nervous tissue or the triggering of neurodegeneration. The responses of activated cells are modulated by neighboring neural cells, which exhibit broad immunomodulatory and pro-regenerative properties by secreting a plethora of active compounds (including interleukins and chemokines, neurotrophins, reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide synthase and complement components), which are engaged in cell crosstalk in a paracrine manner. As the developing nervous system is extremely sensitive to the influence of signaling molecules, even subtle changes in the composition or concentration of the cellular secretome can have significant effects on the developing neonatal brain. Thus, modulating the activity of other types of cells and their interactions with overreactive astrocytes might be a promising strategy for controlling neonatal astrogliosis.

Epigenetic regulation via epigenetic factors in collaboration with tissue-specific transcription factors is curtail for establishing functional organ systems during development. Brain development is tightly regulated by epigenetic factors, which are coordinately activated or inactivated during processes, and their dysregulation is linked to brain abnormalities and intellectual disability. However, the precise mechanism of epigenetic regulation in brain development and neurogenesis remains largely unknown. Here, we show that Tip60/KAT5 deletion in neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs) in mice results in multiple abnormalities of brain development. Tip60-deficient embryonic brain led to microcephaly, and proliferating cells in the developing brain were reduced by Tip60 deficiency. In addition, neural differentiation and neuronal migration were severely affected in Tip60-deficient brains. Following neurogenesis in developing brains, gliogenesis started from the earlier stage of development in Tip60-deficient brains, indicating that Tip60 is involved in switching from neurogenesis to gliogenesis during brain development. It was also confirmed in vitro that poor neurosphere formation, proliferation defects, neural differentiation defects, and accelerated astrocytic differentiation in mutant NSCs are derived from Tip60-deficient embryonic brains. This study uncovers the critical role of Tip60 in brain development and NSC maintenance and function in vivo and in vitro. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal identity factors regulate competence of neural progenitors to generate specific cell types in a time-dependent manner, but how they operate remains poorly defined. In the developing mouse retina, the Ikaros zinc-finger transcription factor Ikzf1 regulates production of early-born cell types, except cone photoreceptors. In this study we show that, during early stages of retinal development, another Ikaros family protein, Ikzf4, functions redundantly with Ikzf1 to regulate cone photoreceptor production. Using CUT&RUN and functional assays, we show that Ikzf4 binds and represses genes involved in late-born rod photoreceptor specification, hence favoring cone production. At late stages, when Ikzf1 is no longer expressed in progenitors, we show that Ikzf4 re-localizes to target genes involved in gliogenesis and is required for Müller glia production. We report that Ikzf4 regulates Notch signaling genes and is sufficient to activate the Hes1 promoter through two Ikzf GGAA-binding motifs, suggesting a mechanism by which Ikzf4 may influence gliogenesis. These results uncover a combinatorial role for Ikaros family members during nervous system development and provide mechanistic insights on how they temporally regulate cell fate output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The proneural transcription factor Achaete-scute complex-like 1 (Ascl1) is a major regulator of neural fate decisions, implicated both in neurogenesis and oligodendrogliogenesis. Focusing on its neurogenic activity, Ascl1 has been widely used to reprogram non-neuronal cells into induced neurons. In vitro, Ascl1 induces efficient reprogramming of proliferative astroglia from the early postnatal cerebral cortex into interneuron-like cells. Here, we examined whether Ascl1 can similarly induce neuronal reprogramming of glia undergoing proliferation in the postnatal mouse cerebral cortex in vivo. Toward this goal, we targeted cortical glia during the peak of proliferative expansion (i.e., postnatal day 5) by injecting a retrovirus encoding for Ascl1 into the mouse cerebral cortex. In contrast to the efficient reprogramming observed in vitro, in vivo Ascl1-transduced glial cells were converted into doublecortin-immunoreactive neurons only with very low efficiency. However, we noted a drastic shift in the relative number of retrovirus-transduced Sox10-positive oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) as compared to glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes. Genetic fate mapping demonstrated that this increase in OPCs was not due to Ascl1-mediated astrocyte-to-OPC fate conversion. Rather, EdU incorporation experiments revealed that Ascl1 caused a selective increase in proliferative activity of OPCs, but not astrocytes. Our data indicate that rather than inducing neuronal reprogramming of glia in the early postnatal cortex, Ascl1 is a selective enhancer of OPC proliferation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive tumors. The etiology and the factors determining its onset are not yet entirely known. This study investigates the origins of GBM, and for this purpose, it focuses primarily on developmental gliogenic processes. It also focuses on the impact of the related neurogenic developmental processes in glioblastoma oncogenesis. It also addresses why glial cells are at more risk of tumor development compared to neurons. Methods Databases including PubMed, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar were searched for published articles without any date restrictions, involving glioblastoma, gliogenesis, neurogenesis, stemness, neural stem cells, gliogenic signaling and pathways, neurogenic signaling and pathways, and astrocytogenic genes. Results The origin of GBM is dependent on dysregulation in multiple genes and pathways that accumulatively converge the cells towards oncogenesis. There are multiple layers of steps in glioblastoma oncogenesis including the failure of cell fate-specific genes to keep the cells differentiated in their specific cell types such as p300, BMP, HOPX, and NRSF/REST. There are genes and signaling pathways that are involved in differentiation and also contribute to GBM such as FGFR3, JAK-STAT, and hey1. The genes that contribute to differentiation processes but also contribute to stemness in GBM include notch, Sox9, Sox4, c-myc gene overrides p300, and then GFAP, leading to upregulation of nestin, SHH, NF-κB, and others. GBM mutations pathologically impact the cell circuitry such as the interaction between Sox2 and JAK-STAT pathway, resulting in GBM development and progression. Conclusion Glioblastoma originates when the gene expression of key gliogenic genes and signaling pathways become dysregulated. This study identifies key gliogenic genes having the ability to control oncogenesis in glioblastoma cells, including p300, BMP, PAX6, HOPX, NRSF/REST, LIF, and TGF beta. It also identifies key neurogenic genes having the ability to control oncogenesis including PAX6, neurogenins including Ngn1, NeuroD1, NeuroD4, Numb, NKX6-1 Ebf, Myt1, and ASCL1. This study also postulates how aging contributes to the onset of glioblastoma by dysregulating the gene expression of NF-κB, REST/NRSF, ERK, AKT, EGFR, and others.

Abstract Hydrocephalus is a distension of the ventricular system associated with ventricular zone disruption, reactive astrogliosis, periventricular white matter ischemia, axonal impairment, and corpus callosum alterations. The condition's etiology is typically attributed to a malfunction in classical cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bulk flow; however, this approach does not consider the unique physiology of CSF in fetal and perinatal patients. The parenchymal fluid contributes to the glymphatic system, and plays a fundamental role in pediatric hydrocephalus, with aquaporin 4 (AQP4) as the primary facilitator of these fluid movements. Despite the importance of AQP4 in the pathophysiology of hydrocephalus, it’s expression in human fetal life is not well-studied. This manuscript systematically defines the brain expression of AQP4 in human brain development under control (n = 13) and hydrocephalic conditions (n = 3). Brains from 8 postconceptional weeks (PCW) onward and perinatal CSF from control (n = 2), obstructive (n = 6) and communicating (n = 6) hydrocephalic samples were analyzed through immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, western blot, and flow cytometry. Our results indicate that AQP4 expression is observed first in the archicortex, followed by the ganglionic eminences and then the neocortex. In the neocortex, it is initially at the perisylvian regions, and lastly at the occipital and prefrontal zones. Characteristic astrocyte end-feet labeling surrounding the vascular system was not established until 25 PCW. We also found AQP4 expression in a subpopulation of glial radial cells with processes that do not progress radially but, rather, curve following white matter tracts (corpus callosum and fornix), which were considered as glial stem cells (GSC). Under hydrocephalic conditions, GSC adjacent to characteristic ventricular zone disruption showed signs of early differentiation into astrocytes which may affect normal gliogenesis and contribute to the white matter dysgenesis. Finally, we found that AQP4 is expressed in the microvesicle fraction (p

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been widely studied due to its association with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, the physiological functions of APP are still largely unexplored. APP is a transmembrane glycoprotein whose expression in humans is abundant in the central nervous system. Specifically, several studies have revealed the high expression of APP during brain development. Previous studies in our laboratory revealed that a transient increase in APP expression induces early cell cycle exit of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) and directs their differentiation towards glial cells (gliogenesis) while decreasing their differentiation towards neurons (neurogenesis). In the present study, we have evaluated the intrinsic cellular effects of APP down-expression (using siRNA) on cell death, cell proliferation, and cell fate specification of hNSCs. Our data indicate that APP silencing causes cellular effects opposite to those obtained in previous APP overexpression assays, inducing cell proliferation in hNS1 cells (a model line of hNSCs) and favoring neurogenesis instead of gliogenesis in these cells. In addition, we have analyzed the gene and protein expression levels of β-Catenin as a possible molecule involved in these cellular effects. These data could help to understand the biological role of APP, which is necessary to deepen the knowledge of AD.

Precise tuning of gene expression, accomplished by regulatory networks of transcription factors, epigenetic modifiers, and microRNAs, is crucial for the proper neural development and function of the brain cells. The SOX transcription factors are involved in regulating diverse cellular processes during embryonic and adult neurogenesis, such as maintaining the cell stemness, cell proliferation, cell fate decisions, and terminal differentiation into neurons and glial cells. MicroRNAs represent a class of small non-coding RNAs that play important roles in the regulation of gene expression. Together with other gene regulatory factors, microRNAs regulate different processes during neurogenesis and orchestrate the spatial and temporal expression important for neurodevelopment. The emerging data point to a complex regulatory network between SOX transcription factors and microRNAs that govern distinct cellular activities in the developing and adult brain. Deregulated SOX/microRNA interplay in signaling pathways that influence the homeostasis and plasticity in the brain has been revealed in various brain pathologies, including neurodegenerative disorders, traumatic brain injury, and cancer. Therapeutic strategies that target SOX/microRNA interplay have emerged in recent years as a promising tool to target neural tissue regeneration and enhance neurorestoration. Numerous studies have confirmed complex interactions between microRNAs and SOX-specific mRNAs regulating key features of glioblastoma. Keeping in mind the crucial roles of SOX genes and microRNAs in neural development, we focus this review on SOX/microRNAs interplay in the brain during development and adulthood in physiological and pathological conditions. Special focus was made on their interplay in brain pathologies to summarize current knowledge and highlight potential future development of molecular therapies.

The proneural transcription factor Achaete-scute complex-like 1 (Ascl1) is a major regulator of neural fate decisions, implicated both in neurogenesis and oligodendrogliogenesis. Focusing on its neurogenic activity, Ascl1 has been widely used to reprogram non-neuronal cells into induced neurons. In vitro, Ascl1 induces efficient reprogramming of proliferative astroglia from the early postnatal cerebral cortex into interneuron-like cells. Here, we examined whether Ascl1 can similarly induce neuronal reprogramming of glia undergoing proliferation in the postnatal mouse cerebral cortex in vivo. Toward this goal, we targeted cortical glia during the peak of proliferative expansion (i.e., postnatal day 5) by injecting a retrovirus encoding for Ascl1 into the mouse cerebral cortex. In contrast to the efficient reprogramming observed in vitro, in vivo Ascl1-transduced glial cells were converted into doublecortin-immunoreactive neurons only with very low efficiency. However, we noted a drastic shift in the relative number of retrovirus-transduced Sox10-positive oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) as compared to glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes. Genetic fate mapping demonstrated that this increase in OPCs was not due to Ascl1-mediated astrocyte-to-OPC fate conversion. Rather, EdU incorporation experiments revealed that Ascl1 caused a selective increase in proliferative activity of OPCs, but not astrocytes. Our data indicate that rather than inducing neuronal reprogramming of glia in the early postnatal cortex, Ascl1 is a selective enhancer of OPC proliferation.

The heterogeneity and multiple functions of enteric glia have recently been recognized. Guyer et al. have now confirmed the neurogenetic potential of enteric glial cells and have also found that some have an open chromatin configuration, suggesting that some glial cells are poised and ready to differentiate into neurons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Astrocytes play an important role in increasing synaptic plasticity, regulating endogenous homeostasis, and contributing to neuroprotection but become overactivated or apoptotic in persistent neuroinflammatory responses or pathological conditions. Although gliogenesis under these conditions may be essential for neuronal protection, much remains unknown. Here, we generated new conditional transgenic mice (cTg) that can induce apoptosis via Cre-dependent active caspase-3 (taCasp3-2A-TEVp) without pathological conditions. We induced apoptosis of hippocampal CA1 astrocytes in cTg mice using GFAP promoter-driven adeno-associated virus (AAV) containing Cre recombinase. Activated caspase-3 was detected in astrocytes of the hippocampal CA1, and the number of astrocytes decreased sharply at 1 week but recovered at 2 weeks and was maintained until 4 weeks. Nuclear factor 1A (NF1A) mRNA, an important transcription factor for hippocampal reactive astrocytes, was significantly increased only at week 1. Interestingly, all reactive markers (pan, A1, A2) increased despite the decreased number of astrocytes at week 1, and there was no change in monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) observed in astrocytes of animal models of degenerative brain disease. Extensive CA1 astrocyte depletion at week 1 induced cognitive deficits; however, both recovered at weeks 2 and 4. Overall, transient hippocampal astrocyte depletion caused by apoptosis restored cell number and function within 2 weeks and did not induce significant neurotoxicity. Therefore, cTg mice are valuable as an in vivo animal model for studying gliogenesis in multiple regions of the adult brain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alpha-synuclein (αSyn) and tau are abundant multifunctional neuronal proteins, and their intracellular deposits have been linked to many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Despite the disease relevance, their physiological roles remain elusive, as mice with knock-out of either of these genes do not exhibit overt phenotypes. To reveal functional cooperation, we generated αSyn-/- tau-/- double-knock-out mice and characterized the functional cross talk between these proteins during brain development. Intriguingly, deletion of aSyn and tau reduced Notch signaling and accelerated interkinetic nuclear migration of G2 phase at early embryonic stage. This significantly altered the balance between the proliferative and neurogenic divisions of progenitor cells, resulting in an overproduction of early born neurons and enhanced neurogenesis, by which the brain size was enlarged during the embryonic stage in both sexes. On the other hand, a reduction in the number of neural progenitor cells in the middle stage of corticogenesis diminished subsequent gliogenesis in the αSyn-/- tau-/- cortex. Additionally, the expansion and maturation of macroglial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes) were suppressed in the αSyn-/- tau-/- postnatal brain, which in turn reduced the male αSyn-/- tau-/- brain size and cortical thickness to less than the control values. Our study identifies important functional cooperation of aSyn and tau during corticogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the mammalian brain, astrocytes form a heterogeneous population at the morphological, molecular, functional, intra-, and inter-region levels. In the past, a few types of astrocytes have been first described based on their morphology and, thereafter, according to limited key molecular markers. With the advent of bulk and single-cell transcriptomics, the diversity of astrocytes is now progressively deciphered and its extent better appreciated. However, the origin of this diversity remains unresolved, even though many recent studies unraveled the specificities of astroglial development at both population and individual cell levels, particularly in the cerebral cortex. Despite the lack of specific markers for each astrocyte subtype, a better understanding of the cellular and molecular events underlying cortical astrocyte diversity is nevertheless within our reach thanks to the development of intersectional lineage tracing, microdissection, spatial mapping, and singlecell transcriptomic tools. Here we present a brief overview describing recent findings on the genesis and maturation of astrocytes and their key regulators during cerebral cortex development. All these studies have considerably advanced our knowledge of cortical astrogliogenesis, which relies on a more complex mode of development than their neuronal counterparts, that undeniably impact astrocyte diversity in the cerebral cortex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the mammalian brain, astrocytes form a heterogeneous population at the morphological, molecular, functional, intra-, and inter-region levels. In the past, a few types of astrocytes have been first described based on their morphology and, thereafter, according to limited key molecular markers. With the advent of bulk and single-cell transcriptomics, the diversity of astrocytes is now progressively deciphered and its extent better appreciated. However, the origin of this diversity remains unresolved, even though many recent studies unraveled the specificities of astroglial development at both population and individual cell levels, particularly in the cerebral cortex. Despite the lack of specific markers for each astrocyte subtype, a better understanding of the cellular and molecular events underlying cortical astrocyte diversity is nevertheless within our reach thanks to the development of intersectional lineage tracing, microdissection, spatial mapping, and single-cell transcriptomic tools. Here we present a brief overview describing recent findings on the genesis and maturation of astrocytes and their key regulators during cerebral cortex development. All these studies have considerably advanced our knowledge of cortical astrogliogenesis, which relies on a more complex mode of development than their neuronal counterparts, that undeniably impact astrocyte diversity in the cerebral cortex.

Numerous studies have focused on the pathophysiological role of amyloid precursor protein (APP) because the proteolytic processing of APP to β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide is a central event in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, many authors consider that alterations in the physiological functions of APP are likely to play a key role in AD. Previous studies in our laboratory revealed that APP plays an important role in the differentiation of human neural stem cells (hNSCs), favoring glial differentiation (gliogenesis) and preventing their differentiation toward a neuronal phenotype (neurogenesis). In the present study, we have evaluated the effects of APP overexpression in hNSCs at a global gene level by a transcriptomic analysis using the massive RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. Specifically, we have focused on differentially expressed genes that are related to neuronal and glial differentiation processes, as well as on groups of differentially expressed genes associated with different signaling pathways, in order to find a possible interaction between them and APP. Our data indicate a differential expression in genes related to Notch, Wnt, PI3K-AKT, and JAK-STAT signaling, among others. Knowledge of APP biological functions, as well as the possible signaling pathways that could be related to this protein, are essential to advance our understanding of AD.

Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is an approach of protection against cerebral ischemia by inducing endogenous cytoprotective machinery. However, few studies in neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis after IPC have been reported, especially the latter. The purpose of this study is to test our hypothesis that IPC may also induce cell proliferation and oligodendrogenesis in the subventricular zone and striatum, as well as to investigate the effect of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) on oligodendrogenesis. IPC was induced in mice by 12-min ischemia through the occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. Newly generated cells were labeled with 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine. Our findings demonstrated that IPC stimulated the proliferation of neural stem cells in the subventricular zone, promoted the generation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the striatum and corpus callosum/external capsule (CC/EC), and stimulated oligodendrocyte precursor cells differentiation into oligodendrocytes in the striatum and the CC/EC. Furthermore, we describe a crucial role for Nrf2 in IPC-induced oligodendrogenesis in the subventricular zone, striatum, and CC/EC and show for the first time that Nrf2 promoted the migration and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells into oligodendrocytes in the striatum and CC/EC. Our data imply that IPC stimulates the oligodendrogenesis in the brain and that Nrf2 signaling may contribute to the oligodendrogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge on cortical development is based mainly on rodents besides primates and carnivores, all being altricial. Here, we analyzed a precocial animal, the pig, looking at dorsoparietal cortex from E45 to P90. At E45, most ionized calcium‐binding adapter molecule 1‐positive (Iba1+) cells had a macrophage‐like morphology and resided in meninges and choroid plexus. Only a few cells were scattered in the ventricular and subventricular zone (VZ and SVZ). At E60/E70, all laminar compartments displayed microglia cells at a low‐to‐moderate density, being highest in VZ and SVZ followed by intermediate zone/white matter (IZ/WM). The cortical plate and marginal zone displayed only a few Iba1+ cells. Cells were intensely labeled, but still had poorly arborized somata and many resembled ameboid, macrophage‐like microglia. Concurrent with a massive increase in cortical volume, microglia cell density increased until E85, and further until E100/E110 (birth at E114) to densities that resemble those seen postnatally. A fraction of microglia colabeled with Ki67 suggesting proliferation in all laminar compartments. Cell‐to‐cell distance decreased substantially during this time, and the fraction of microglia to all nuclei and to neurons increases in the laminar compartments. Eventually, of all cortical DAPI+ nuclei 7–12% were Iba1+ microglia. From E70 onwards, more and more cells with ramified processes were present in MZ down to IZ/WM, showing, for instance, a close association with NeuN+, NPY+, and GAD65/67+ somata and axon initial segments. These results suggested that the development of microglia cell density and morphology proceeds rapidly from mid‐gestation onwards reaching near‐adult status already before birth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neural stem cells (NSC) restrict their differentiation potential as the central nervous system develops. Experimental evidence suggests that the mechanisms governing the transition from the neurogenic to the gliogenic phase irreversibly affect the ability of NSC to generate neurons. Cell cycle regulation has been associated with cell fate in different models. In this work, we assessed the temporal correlation between the loss of the neurogenic potential and cell cycle lengthening of NSC obtained from embryonic mouse spinal cords, during the transition of the neurogenic to the gliogenic phase, using neurospheres. We also used the cell cycle inhibitor Olomoucine to increase cell cycle length by decreasing the proliferation rate. Our results show that neurospheres obtained from a neurogenic stage give rise mostly to neurons, whereas those obtained from later stages produce preferentially glial cells. During the transition from neurogenesis to gliogenesis, the proliferation rate dropped, and the cell cycle length increased 1.5 folds, as monitored by DNA BrdU incorporation. Interestingly, Olomoucine-treated neurogenic-neurospheres display a reduced proliferation rate and preserve their neurogenic potential. Our results suggest that the mechanisms that restrict the differentiation potential of NSC are independent of the proliferation control.

Although 17β-estradiol (E2) can be locally synthesized in the brain, whether and how brain-derived E2 (BDE2) impacts neurogenesis with aging is largely unclear. In this study, we examined the hippocampal neural stem cells, neurogenesis, and gliogenesis of 1, 3, 6, 14, and 18-month (Mon) female rats. Female forebrain neuronal aromatase knockout (FBN-ARO-KO) rats and letrozole-treated rats were also employed. We demonstraed that (1) the number of neural stem cells declined over 14-Mon age, and the differentiation of astrocytes and microglia markedly elevated and exhibited excessive activation. KO rats showed declines in astrocyte A2 subtype and elevation in A1 subtype at 18 Mon; (2) neurogenesis sharply dropped from 1-Mon age; (3) KO suppressed dentate gyrus (DG) neurogenesis at 1, 6 and 18 Mon. Additionally, KO and letrozole treatment led to declined neurogenesis at 1-Mon age, compared to age-matched WT controls; (4) FBN-ARO-KO inhibited CREB-BDNF activation, and decreased protein levels of neurofilament, spinophilin and PSD95. Notably, hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory was impaired in juvenile (1 Mon) and adulthood (6 Mon) KO rats. Taken together, we demonstrated that BDE2 plays a pivotal role for hippocampal neurogenesis, as well as learning and memory during female aging, especially in juvenile and middle age.

Specific spatiotemporal patterns of the normal glial differentiation during human brain development have not been thoroughly studied. Immunomorphological studies on postmortem material have remained a basic method for human neurodevelopmental studies so far. The main problem for the immunohistochemical research of astrogliogenesis is that now there are no universal astrocyte markers, that characterize the whole mature astrocyte population or precursors at each stage of development. To define the general course of astrogliogenesis in the developing human cortex, 25 fetal autopsy samples at the stages from eight postconceptional weeks to birth were collected for the immunomorphological analysis. Spatiotemporal immunoreactivity patterns with the panel of markers (ALDH1L1, GFAP, S100, SOX9, and Olig-2), related to glial differentiation were described and compared. The early S100 + cell population of ventral origin was described as well. This S100 + cell distribution deviated from the SOX9-immunoreactivity pattern and was similar to the Olig-2 one. In the given material the dorsal gliogenic wave was characterized by ALDH1L1-, GFAP-, and S100-immunoreactivity manifestation in the dorsal proliferative niche at the end of the early fetal period. The time point of dorsal astrogliogenesis was agreed upon not later than the 17 GW stage. ALDH1L1 + , GFAP + , S100 + , and SOX9 + cell expansion patterns from the ventricular and subventricular zones to the intermediate zone, subplate, and cortical plate were described at the end of early fetal, middle, and late fetal periods. The ALDH1L1-, GFAP-, and S100-immunoreactivity patterns were shown to be not completely identical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Down syndrome (DS), also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by triplication of Chromosome 21. Gene triplication may compromise different body functions but invariably impairs intellectual abilities starting from infancy. Moreover, after the fourth decade of life people with DS are likely to develop Alzheimer's disease. Neurogenesis impairment during fetal life stages and dendritic pathology emerging in early infancy are thought to be key determinants of alterations in brain functioning in DS. Although the progressive improvement in medical care has led to a notable increase in life expectancy for people with DS, there are currently no treatments for intellectual disability. Increasing evidence in mouse models of DS reveals that pharmacological interventions in the embryonic and neonatal periods may greatly benefit brain development and cognitive performance. The most striking results have been obtained with pharmacotherapies during embryonic life stages, indicating that it is possible to pharmacologically rescue the severe neurodevelopmental defects linked to the trisomic condition. These findings provide hope that similar benefits may be possible for people with DS. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding (i) the scope and timeline of neurogenesis (and dendritic) alterations in DS, in order to delineate suitable windows for treatment; (ii) the role of triplicated genes that are most likely to be the key determinants of these alterations, in order to highlight possible therapeutic targets; and (iii) prenatal and neonatal treatments that have proved to be effective in mouse models, in order to rationalize the choice of treatment for human application. Based on this body of evidence we will discuss prospects and challenges for fetal therapy in individuals with DS as a potential means of drastically counteracting the deleterious effects of gene triplication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive tumors. The etiology and the factors determining its onset are not yet entirely known. This study investigates the origins of GBM, and for this purpose, it focuses primarily on developmental gliogenic processes. It also focuses on the impact of the related neurogenic developmental processes in glioblastoma oncogenesis. It also addresses why glial cells are at more risk of tumor development compared to neurons. Methods: Databases including PubMed, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar were searched for published articles without any date restrictions, involving glioblastoma, gliogenesis, neurogenesis, stemness, neural stem cells, gliogenic signaling and pathways, neurogenic signaling and pathways, and astrocytogenic genes. Results: The origin of GBM is dependent on dysregulation in multiple genes and pathways that accumulatively converge the cells towards oncogenesis. There are multiple layers of steps in glioblastoma oncogenesis including the failure of cell fate-specific genes to keep the cells differentiated in their specific cell types such as p300, BMP, HOPX, and NRSF/REST. There are genes and signaling pathways that are involved in differentiation and also contribute to GBM such as FGFR3, JAK-STAT, and hey1. The genes that contribute to differentiation processes but also contribute to stemness in GBM include notch, Sox9, Sox4, c-myc gene overrides p300, and then GFAP, leading to upregulation of nestin, SHH, NF-κB, and others. GBM mutations pathologically impact the cell circuitry such as the interaction between Sox2 and JAK-STAT pathway, resulting in GBM development and progression. Conclusion: Glioblastoma originates when the gene expression of key gliogenic genes and signaling pathways become dysregulated. This study identifies key gliogenic genes having the ability to control oncogenesis in glioblastoma cells, including p300, BMP, PAX6, HOPX, NRSF/REST, LIF, and TGF beta. It also identifies key neurogenic genes having the ability to control oncogenesis including PAX6, neurogenins including Ngn1, NeuroD1, NeuroD4, Numb, NKX6-1 Ebf, Myt1, and ASCL1. This study also postulates how aging contributes to the onset of glioblastoma by dysregulating the gene expression of NF-κB, REST/NRSF, ERK, AKT, EGFR, and others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrocephalus is a distension of the ventricular system associated with ventricular zone disruption, reactive astrogliosis, periventricular white matter ischemia, axonal impairment, and corpus callosum alterations. The condition's etiology is typically attributed to a malfunction in classical cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bulk flow; however, this approach does not consider the unique physiology of CSF in fetal and perinatal patients. The parenchymal fluid contributes to the glymphatic system, and plays a fundamental role in pediatric hydrocephalus, with aquaporin 4 (AQP4) as the primary facilitator of these fluid movements. Despite the importance of AQP4 in the pathophysiology of hydrocephalus, it's expression in human fetal life is not well-studied. This manuscript systematically defines the brain expression of AQP4 in human brain development under control (n = 13) and hydrocephalic conditions (n = 3). Brains from 8 postconceptional weeks (PCW) onward and perinatal CSF from control (n = 2), obstructive (n = 6) and communicating (n = 6) hydrocephalic samples were analyzed through immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, western blot, and flow cytometry. Our results indicate that AQP4 expression is observed first in the archicortex, followed by the ganglionic eminences and then the neocortex. In the neocortex, it is initially at the perisylvian regions, and lastly at the occipital and prefrontal zones. Characteristic astrocyte end-feet labeling surrounding the vascular system was not established until 25 PCW. We also found AQP4 expression in a subpopulation of glial radial cells with processes that do not progress radially but, rather, curve following white matter tracts (corpus callosum and fornix), which were considered as glial stem cells (GSC). Under hydrocephalic conditions, GSC adjacent to characteristic ventricular zone disruption showed signs of early differentiation into astrocytes which may affect normal gliogenesis and contribute to the white matter dysgenesis. Finally, we found that AQP4 is expressed in the microvesicle fraction (p < 0.01) of CSF from patients with obstructive hydrocephalus. These findings suggest the potential use of AQP4 as a diagnostic and prognostic marker of pediatric hydrocephalus and as gliogenesis biomarker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glia make up roughly half of all cells in the mammalian nervous system and play a major part in nervous system development, function, and disease. Although research in the past few decades has shed light on their morphological and functional diversity, there is still much to be known about key aspects of their development such as the generation of glial diversity and the factors governing proper morphogenesis. Glia of the nematode C. elegans possess many developmental and morphological similarities with their vertebrate counterparts and can potentially be used as a model to understand certain aspects of glial biology owing to advantages such as its genetic tractability and fully mapped cell lineage. In this review, we summarize recent progress in our understanding of genetic pathways that regulate glial development in C. elegans and discuss how some of these findings may be conserved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During mammalian brain development, how different astrocytes are specified from progenitor cells is not well understood. In particular, whether astrocyte progenitor cells (APCs) start as a relatively homogenous population or whether there is early heterogeneity remains unclear. Here, we have dissected subpopulations of embryonic mouse forebrain progenitors using single-cell transcriptome analyses. Our sequencing data revealed two molecularly distinct APC subgroups at the start of gliogenesis from both dorsal and ventral forebrains. The two APC subgroups were marked, respectively, by specific expression of Sparc and Sparcl1, which are known to function in mature astrocytes with opposing activities for regulating synapse formation. Expression analyses showed that SPARC and SPARCL1 mark APC subgroups that display distinct temporal and spatial patterns, correlating with major waves of astrogliogenesis during development. Our results uncover an early molecular divergence of APCs in the mammalian brain and provide a useful transcriptome resource for the study of glial cell specification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olig1 and Olig2, two transcription factors, play regulatory function in the differentiation and specification of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). In this study the effects of electromagnetic fields (EMF) on total protein concentration ( TPC ) and Olig1 and Olig2 expression in the cerebral cortex of mouse was examined. Twenty-one Balb/c mice were separated into three groups: control, EMF and Sham groups (n=7 for each group). The mice were placed inside the solenoid for a daily EMF exposure of 50 Hz, 1 mT for 6 h/day, 7 days/week for 10 days. The Sham group was also located in the same coil with no exposure. Mice were anesthetized after the final exposure session and their cerebral cortex were collected. TPC and the expression of Olig 1 and Olig2 were studied by Bio-Rad protein assay and western blot, respectively. The cerebral cortex samples were removed for further analysis. There was no significant difference in TPC in the EMF treated cortical samples as compared with those from the SHAM and control groups. It was also shown that the expression of Olig1 and Olig2 was increased in the EMF treated cortical extracts as compared with those in controls and SHAM groups. Therefore, it could be concluded that EMF enhances Olig1 and Olig2 expression in the mice cerebral cortex. Moreover, as Olig1 and Olig2 plays important role in the development of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, it can be deduced that EMF may affect OPC differentiation by increasing the expression of Olig1 and Olig2. Further studies are needed to clarify the extent of EMF impact on oligodendrocyte differentiation.

Down syndrome (DS), also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by triplication of Chromosome 21. Gene triplication may compromise different body functions but invariably impairs intellectual abilities starting from infancy. Moreover, after the fourth decade of life people with DS are likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease. Neurogenesis impairment during fetal life stages and dendritic pathology emerging in early infancy are thought to be key determinants of alterations in brain functioning in DS. Although the progressive improvement in medical care has led to a notable increase in life expectancy for people with DS, there are currently no treatments for intellectual disability. Increasing evidence in mouse models of DS reveals that pharmacological interventions in the embryonic and neonatal periods may greatly benefit brain development and cognitive performance. The most striking results have been obtained with pharmacotherapies during embryonic life stages, indicating that it is possible to pharmacologically rescue the severe neurodevelopmental defects linked to the trisomic condition. These findings provide hope that similar benefits may be possible for people with DS. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding (i) the scope and timeline of neurogenesis (and dendritic) alterations in DS, in order to delineate suitable windows for treatment; (ii) the role of triplicated genes that are most likely to be the key determinants of these alterations, in order to highlight possible therapeutic targets; and (iii) prenatal and neonatal treatments that have proved to be effective in mouse models, in order to rationalize the choice of treatment for human application. Based on this body of evidence we will discuss prospects and challenges for fetal therapy in individuals with DS as a potential means of drastically counteracting the deleterious effects of gene triplication.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are multipotent stem cells that reside in the fetal and adult mammalian brain, which can self-renew and differentiate into neurons and supporting cells. Intrinsic and extrinsic cues, from cells in the local niche and from distant sites, stringently orchestrates the self-renewal and differentiation competence of NSCs. Ample evidence supports the important role of NSCs in neuroplasticity, aging, disease, and repair of the nervous system. Indeed, activation of NSCs or their transplantation into injured areas of the central nervous system can lead to regeneration in animal models. Viral invasion of NSCs can negatively affect neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, with consequent cell death, impairment of cell cycle progression, early differentiation, which cause neural progenitors depletion in the cortical layer of the brain. Herein, we will review the current understanding of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection of the fetal brain and the NSCs, which are the preferential population targeted by ZIKV. Furthermore, the potential neurotropic properties of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which may cause direct neurological damage, will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Neurogenesis is a continuous process that remains active throughout life. • Cytogenesis is a plastic phenomenon that adapts to environmental challenges. • Cytogenesis is compromised in mood disorders and chronic stress. • Gliogenesis is also a key feature for the development of neuropsychiatric disorders. • Exploring the unique role of gliogenesis is crucial to understand disease mechanisms. Psychiatric disorders severely impact patients' lives. Motivational, cognitive and emotional deficits are the most common symptoms observed in these patients and no effective treatment is still available, either due to the adverse side effects or the low rate of efficacy of currently available drugs. Neurogenesis recovery has been one important focus in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, which undeniably contributes to the therapeutic action of antidepressants. However, glial plasticity is emerging as a new strategy to explore the deficits observed in mood disorders and the efficacy of therapeutic interventions. Thus, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms behind glio- and neurogenesis to better define treatments and preventive therapies, once adult cytogenesis is of pivotal importance to cognitive and emotional components of behavior, both in healthy and pathological contexts, including in psychiatric disorders. Here, we review the concepts and history of neuro- and gliogenesis, providing as well a reflection on the functional importance of cytogenesis in the context of disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Noonan syndrome (NS) is a developmental disorder caused by mutations of Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 2 (SHP2). Although NS patients have diverse neurological manifestations, the mechanisms underlying the involvement of SHP2 mutations in neurological dysfunction remain elusive. Methods Induced pluripotent stem cells generated from dermal fibroblasts of three NS-patients (NS-iPSCs) differentiated to the neural cells by using two different culture systems, 2D- and 3D-cultured systems in vitro. Results Here we represent that SHP2 mutations cause aberrant neural development. The NS-iPSCs exhibited impaired development of EBs in which BMP and TGF-β signalings were activated. Defective early neuroectodermal development of NS-iPSCs recovered by inhibition of both signalings and further differentiated into NPCs. Intriguingly, neural cells developed from NS-NPCs exhibited abundancy of the glial cells, neurites of neuronal cells, and low electrophysiological property. Those aberrant phenotypes were also detected in NS-cerebral organoids. SHP2 inhibition in the NS-NPCs and NS-cerebral organoids ameliorated those anomalies such as biased glial differentiation and low neural activity. Conclusion Our findings demonstrate that SHP2 mutations contribute to precocious gliogenesis in NS-iPSCs during neural development in vitro.