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Massive stars can determine the evolution of molecular clouds by eroding and photo-evaporating their surfaces with strong ultraviolet (UV) radiation fields. Moreover, UV radiation is relevant in setting the thermal gas pressure in star-forming clouds, whose influence can extend across various spatial scales, from the rims of molecular clouds to entire star-forming galaxies. Probing the fundamental structure of nearby molecular clouds is therefore crucial to understand how massive stars shape their surrounding medium and how fast molecular clouds are destroyed, specifically at their UV-illuminated edges, where models predict an intermediate zone of neutral atomic gas between the molecular cloud and the surrounding ionized gas whose size is directly related to the exposed physical conditions. We present the highest angular resolution (~0.″5, corresponding to 207 au) and velocity-resolved images of the molecular gas emission in the Horsehead nebula, using CO J = 3–2 and HCO+J = 4−3 observations with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). We find that CO and HCO+ are present at the edge of the cloud, very close to the ionization (H+/H) and dissociation fronts (H/H2), suggesting a very thin layer of neutral atomic gas (<650 au) and a small amount of CO-dark gas (AV = 0.006–0.26 mag) for stellar UV illumination conditions typical of molecular clouds in the Milky Way. The new ALMA observations reveal a web of molecular gas filaments with an estimated thermal gas pressure of Pth = (2.3 – 4.0) × 106 K cm−3, and the presence of a steep density gradient at the cloud edge that can be well explained by stationary isobaric photo-dissociation region (PDR) models with pressures consistent with our estimations. However, in the H II region and PDR interface, we find Pth,PDR > Pth,H II suggesting the gas is slightly compressed. Therefore, dynamical effects cannot be completely ruled out and even higher angular observations will be needed to unveil their role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. High-mass stars and star clusters commonly form within hub-filament systems. Monoceros R2 (hereafter Mon R2), at a distance of 830 pc, harbors one of the closest of these systems, making it an excellent target for case studies. Aims. We investigate the morphology, stability and dynamical properties of the Mon R2 hub-filament system. Methods. We employed observations of the 13CO and C18O 1 →0 and 2 →1 lines obtained with the IRAM-30 m telescope. We also used H2 column density maps derived from Herschel dust emission observations. Results. We identified the filamentary network in Mon R2 with the DisPerSE algorithm and characterized the individual filaments as either main (converging into the hub) or secondary (converging to a main filament). The main filaments have line masses of 30–100 M⊙ pc−1 and show signs of fragmentation, while the secondary filaments have line masses of 12–60 M⊙ pc−1 and show fragmentation only sporadically. In the context of Ostriker's hydrostatic filament model, the main filaments are thermally supercritical. If non-thermal motions are included, most of them are transcritical. Most of the secondary filaments are roughly transcritical regardless of whether non-thermal motions are included or not. From the morphology and kinematics of the main filaments, we estimate a mass accretion rate of 10−4–10−3M⊙ yr−1 into the central hub. The secondary filaments accrete into the main filaments at a rate of 0.1–0.4 × 10−4M⊙ yr−1. The main filaments extend into the central hub. Their velocity gradients increase toward the hub, suggesting acceleration of the gas. We estimate that with the observed infall velocity, the mass-doubling time of the hub is ~2.5 Myr, ten times longer than the free-fall time, suggesting a dynamically old region. These timescales are comparable with the chemical age of the HII region. Inside the hub, the main filaments show a ring- or a spiral-like morphology that exhibits rotation and infall motions. One possible explanation for the morphology is that gas is falling into the central cluster following a spiral-like pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

GEMS is an IRAM 30 m Large Program whose aim is determining the elemental depletions and the ionization fraction in a set of prototypical star-forming regions. This paper presents the first results from the prototypical dark cloud Taurus molecular cloud (TMC) 1. Extensive millimeter observations have been carried out with the IRAM 30 m telescope (3 and 2 mm) and the 40 m Yebes telescope (1.3 cm and 7 mm) to determine the fractional abundances of CO, HCO+, HCN, CS, SO, HCS+, and N2H+ in three cuts which intersect the dense filament at the well-known positions TMC 1-CP, TMC 1-NH3, and TMC 1-C, covering a visual extinction range from AV ~ 3 to ~20 mag. Two phases with differentiated chemistry can be distinguished: (i) the translucent envelope with molecular hydrogen densities of 1−5 × 103 cm−3; and (ii) the dense phase, located at AV > 10 mag, with molecular hydrogen densities >104 cm−3. Observations and modeling show that the gas phase abundances of C and O progressively decrease along the C+/C/CO transition zone (AV ~ 3 mag) where C/H ~ 8 × 10−5 and C/O ~ 0.8−1, until the beginning of the dense phase at AV ~ 10 mag. This is consistent with the grain temperatures being below the CO evaporation temperature in this region. In the case of sulfur, a strong depletion should occur before the translucent phase where we estimate an S∕H ~ (0.4−2.2) × 10−6, an abundance ~7–40 times lower than the solar value. A second strong depletion must be present during the formation of the thick icy mantles to achieve the values of S/H measured in the dense cold cores (S∕H ~ 8 × 10−8). Based on our chemical modeling, we constrain the value of ζH2 $\zeta_{\textrm{H}_2}$ ζ H 2 to ~(0.5–1.8) × 10−16 s−1 in the translucent cloud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive stars inject mechanical and radiative energy into the surrounding environment, which stirs it up, heats the gas, produces cloud and intercloud phases in the interstellar medium, and disrupts molecular clouds (the birth sites of new stars1,2). Stellar winds, supernova explosions and ionization by ultraviolet photons control the lifetimes of molecular clouds3-7. Theoretical studies predict that momentum injection by radiation should dominate that by stellar winds8, but this has been difficult to assess observationally. Velocity-resolved large-scale images in the fine-structure line of ionized carbon ([C II]) provide an observational diagnostic for the radiative energy input and the dynamics of the interstellar medium around massive stars. Here we report observations of a one-square-degree region (about 7 parsecs in diameter) of Orion molecular core 1—the region nearest to Earth that exhibits massive-star formation—at a resolution of 16 arcseconds (0.03 parsecs) in the [C II] line at 1.9 terahertz (158 micrometres). The results reveal that the stellar wind originating from the massive star θ1 Orionis C has swept up the surrounding material to create a 'bubble' roughly four parsecs in diameter with a 2,600-solar-mass shell, which is expanding at 13 kilometres per second. This finding demonstrates that the mechanical energy from the stellar wind is converted very efficiently into kinetic energy of the shell and causes more disruption of the Orion molecular core 1 than do photo-ionization and evaporation or future supernova explosions. Wind from the most massive star in the Trapezium cluster in Orion has carved out a large and expanding cavity around the cluster, bounded by a thin, 2,600-solar-mass shell. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Silicon carbide dust is ubiquitous in circumstellar envelopes around C-rich asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars. However, the main gas-phase precursors leading to the formation of SiC dust have not yet been identified. The most obvious candidates among the molecules containing an Si-C bond detected in C-rich AGB stars are SiC2, SiC and Si2C. To date, the ring molecule SiC2 has been observed in a handful of evolved stars, while SiC and Si2C have only been detected in the C-star envelope IRC +10216. Aims. We aim to study how widespread and abundant SiC2, SiC and Si2C are in envelopes around C-rich AGB stars and whether or not these species play an active role as gas-phase precursors of silicon carbide dust in the ejecta of carbon stars. Methods. We carried out sensitive observations with the IRAM 30m telescope of a sample of 25 C-rich AGB stars to search for emission lines of SiC2, SiC and Si2C in the ʎ 2 mm band.We performed non-LTE excitation and radiative transfer calculations based on the LVG method to model the observed lines of SiC2 and to derive SiC2 fractional abundances in the observed envelopes. Results. We detect SiC2 in most of the sources, SiC in about half of them and do not detect Si2C in any source except IRC +10216. Most of these detections are reported for the first time in this work. We find a positive correlation between the SiC and SiC2 line emission, which suggests that both species are chemically linked; the SiC radical is probably the photodissociation product of SiC2 in the external layer of the envelope. We find a clear trend where the denser the envelope, the less abundant SiC2 is. The observed trend is interpreted as evidence of effcient incorporation of SiC2 onto dust grains, a process that is favored at high densities owing to the higher rate at which collisions between particles take place. Conclusions. The observed behavior of a decline in the SiC2 abundance with increasing density strongly suggests that SiC2 is an important gas-phase precursor of SiC dust in envelopes around carbon stars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a proof of concept on the coupling of radio astronomical receivers and spectrometers with chemical reactors and the performances of the resulting setup for spectroscopy and chemical simulations in laboratory astrophysics. Several experiments including cold plasma generation and UV photochemistry were performed in a 40 cm long gas cell placed in the beam path of the Aries 40 m radio telescope receivers operating in the 41-49 GHz frequency range interfaced with fast Fourier transform spectrometers providing 2 GHz bandwidth and 38 kHz resolution. The impedance matching of the cell windows has been studied using different materials. The choice of the material and its thickness was critical to obtain a sensitivity identical to that of standard radio astronomical observations. Spectroscopic signals arising from very low partial pressures of CH3OH, CH3CH2OH, HCOOH, OCS, CS, SO2 (<10-3 mbar) were detected in a few seconds. Fast data acquisition was achieved allowing for kinetic measurements in fragmentation experiments using electron impact or UV irradiation. Time evolution of chemical reactions involving OCS, O2 and CS2 was also observed demonstrating that reactive species, such as CS, can be maintained with high abundance in the gas phase during these experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. L1630 in the Orion B molecular cloud, which includes the iconic Horsehead Nebula, illuminated by the star system σ Ori, is an example of a photodissociation region (PDR). In PDRs, stellar radiation impinges on the surface of dense material, often a molecular cloud, thereby inducing a complex network of chemical reactions and physical processes. Aims. Observations toward L1630 allow us to study the interplay between stellar radiation and a molecular cloud under relatively benign conditions, that is, intermediate densities and an intermediate UV radiation field. Contrary to the well-studied Orion Molecular Cloud 1 (OMC1), which hosts much harsher conditions, L1630 has little star formation. Our goal is to relate the [C ii] fine-structure line emission to the physical conditions predominant in L1630 and compare it to studies of OMC1. Methods. The [C ii] 158 μm line emission of L1630 around the Horsehead Nebula, an area of 12' × 17', was observed using the upgraded German Receiver for Astronomy at Terahertz Frequencies (upGREAT) onboard the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Results. Of the [C ii] emission from the mapped area 95%, 13 L☉, originates from the molecular cloud; the adjacent Hii region contributes only 5%, that is, 1 L☉. From comparison with other data (CO (1-0)-line emission, far-infrared (FIR) continuum studies, emission from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)), we infer a gas density of the molecular cloud of nH ~ 3 × 103 cm-3, with surface layers, including the Horsehead Nebula, having a density of up to nH ~ 4 × 104 cm-3. The temperature of the surface gas is T ~ 100K. The average [C ii] cooling effciency within the molecular cloud is 1:3 × 10-2. The fraction of the mass of the molecular cloud within the studied area that is traced by [C ii] is only 8%. Our PDR models are able to reproduce the FIR-[C ii] correlations and also the CO(1-0)-[C ii] correlations. Finally, we compare our results on the heating effciency of the gas with theoretical studies of photoelectric heating by PAHs, clusters of PAHs, and very small grains, and find the heating effciency to be lower than theoretically predicted, a continuation of the trend set by other observations. Conclusions. In L1630 only a small fraction of the gas mass is traced by [C ii]. Most of the [C ii] emission in the mapped area stems from PDR surfaces. The layered edge-on structure of the molecular cloud and limitations in spatial resolution put constraints on our ability to relate different tracers to each other and to the physical conditions. From our study, we conclude that the relation between [C ii] emission and physical conditions is likely to be more complicated than often assumed. The theoretical heating effciency is higher than the one we calculate from the observed [C ii] emission in the L1630 molecular cloud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the reactivity of the 2-phosphaethynolate anion (PCO−) towards enantiomerically pure α-amino acids (AAs) resulting in the formation of novel salts of phosphinecarboxamides bearing chiral functionalities. These transformations occurred quantitatively with all but one of the amino acids trialled (the basic amino acid arginine was found to be unreactive). The resulting ionic species can be readily protonated to afford N-(phosphanyl)carbonyl-amino acids, a novel group of amino acids bearing primary phosphine functionalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have investigated the global dynamical state of the integral shaped filament in the Orion A cloud using new N2H+ (1-0) largescale, IRAM 30m observations. Our analysis of its internal gas dynamics reveals the presence of accelerated motions towards the Orion Nebula Cluster, showing a characteristic blue-shifted profile centred at the position of the OMC-1 South region. The properties of these observed gas motions (profile, extension, and magnitude) are consistent with the expected accelerations for the gravitational collapse of the OMC-1 region and explain both the physical and kinematic structure of this cloud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. Our goal is to determine the molecular composition of the circumstellar disk around AB Aurigae (hereafter, AB Aur). AB Aur is a prototypical Herbig Ae star and the understanding of its disk chemistry is paramount for understanding the chemical evolution of the gas in warm disks. Methods. We used the IRAM 30-m telescope to perform a sensitive search for molecular lines in AB Aur as part of the IRAM Large program ASAI (a chemical survey of Sun-like star-forming regions). These data were complemented with interferometric observations of the HCO+ 1→0 and C17O 1→0 lines using the IRAM Plateau de Bure Interferometer (PdBI). Single-dish and interferometric data were used to constrain chemical models. Results. Throughout the survey, several lines of CO and its isotopologues, HCO+, H2CO, HCN, CN, and CS, were detected. In addition, we detected the SO 54→33 and 56→45 lines, confirming the previously tentative detection. Compared to other T Tauri and Herbig Ae disks, AB Aur presents low HCN 3→2/HCO+ 3→2 and CN 2→1/HCN 3→2 line intensity ratios, similar to other transition disks. AB Aur is the only protoplanetary disk detected in SO thus far, and its detection is consistent with interpretation of this disk being younger than those associated with TTauri stars. Conclusions. We modeled the line profiles using a chemical model and a radiative transfer 3D code. Our model assumes a flared disk in hydrostatic equilibrium. The best agreement with observations was obtained for a disk with a mass of 0.01 MΘ, Rin = 110 AU, Rout = 550 AU, a surface density radial index of 1.5, and an inclination of 27?. The intensities and line profiles were reproduced within a factor of ~2 for most lines. This agreement is reasonable considering the simplicity of our model that neglects any structure within the disk. However, the HCN 3→2 and CN 2→1 line intensities were predicted to be more intense by a factor of > 10. We discuss several scenarios to explain this discrepancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Context. Carbon chemistry plays a pivotal role in the interstellar medium (ISM) but even the synthesis of the simplest hydrocarbons and how they relate to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and grains is not well understood. Aims. We study the spatial distribution and chemistry of small hydrocarbons in the Orion Bar photodissociation region (PDR), a prototypical environment in which to investigate molecular gas irradiated by strong UV fields. Methods. We used the IRAM 30 m telescope to carry out a millimetre line survey towards the Orion Bar edge, complemented with ~2' × 2' maps of the C2H and c-C3H2 emission. We analyse the excitation of the detected hydrocarbons and constrain the physical conditions of the emitting regions with non-LTE radiative transfer models. We compare the inferred column densities with updated gas-phase photochemical models including 13CCH and C13CH isotopomer fractionation. Results. Approximately 40% of the lines in the survey arise from hydrocarbons (C2H, C4H, c-C3H2, c-C3H, C13CH, 13CCH, l-C3H, and l-H2C3 in decreasing order of abundance). We detect new lines from l-C3H+ and improve its rotational spectroscopic constants. Anions or deuterated hydrocarbons are not detected, but we provide accurate upper limit abundances: [C2D]/[C2H] < 0.2%, [C2H-]/[C2H] < 0.007%, and [C4H-]/[C4H] < 0.05%. Conclusions. Our models can reasonably match the observed column densities of most hydrocarbons (within factors of <3). Since the observed spatial distribution of the C2H and c-C3H2 emission is similar but does not follow the PAH emission, we conclude that, in high UV-flux PDRs, photodestruction of PAHs is not a necessary requirement to explain the observed abundances of the smallest hydrocarbons. Instead, gas-phase endothermic reactions (or with barriers) between C+, radicals, and H2 enhance the formation of simple hydrocarbons. Observations and models suggest that the [C2H]/[c-C3H2] ratio (~32 at the PDR edge) decreases with the UV field attenuation. The observed low cyclic-to-linear C3H column density ratio (≤3) is consistent with a high electron abundance (xe) PDR environment. In fact, the poorly constrained xe gradient influences much of the hydrocarbon chemistry in the more UV-shielded gas. The inferred hot rotational temperatures for C4H and l-C3H+ also suggest that radiative IR pumping affects their excitation. We propose that reactions of C2H isotopologues with 13C+ and H atoms can explain the observed [C13CH]/[13CCH] = 1.4 ± 0.1 fractionation level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. In our series of papers presenting the Herschel imaging of evolved planetary nebulae, we present images of the dust distribution in the Helix nebula (NGC 7293). Methods. Images at 70, 160, 250, 350, and 500 μm were obtained with the PACS and SPIRE instruments on board the Herschel satellite. Results. The broadband maps show the dust distribution over the main Helix nebula to be clumpy and predominantly present in the barrel wall. We determined the spectral energy distribution of the main nebula in a consistent way using Herschel, IRAS, and Planck flux values. The emissivity index of β = 0:99-0:09, in combination with the carbon rich molecular chemistry of the nebula, indicates that the dust consists mainly of amorphous carbon. The dust excess emission from the central star disk is detected at 70 m and the flux measurement agrees with previous measurement. We present the temperature and dust column density maps. The total dust mass across the Helix nebula (without its halo) is determined to be 3:5 × 10-3 M⊙ at a distance of 216 pc. The temperature map shows dust temperatures between 22 K and 42 K, which is similar to the kinetic temperature of the molecular gas, confirming that the dust and gas co-exist in high density clumps. Archived images are used to compare the location of the dust emission in the far infrared (Herschel) with the ionized (GALEX and Hβ) and molecular (H2) component. The different emission components are consistent with the Helix consisting of a thick walled barrel-like structure inclined to the line of sight. The radiation field decreases rapidly through the barrel wall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. Ionized carbon is the main gas-phase reservoir of carbon in the neutral diffuse interstellar medium (ISM) and its 158 µm fine structure transition [CII] is the most important cooling line of the diffuse ISM. We combine [CII] absorption and emission spectroscopy to gain an improved understanding of physical conditions in the different phases of the ISM. Methods. We present high-resolution [CII] spectra obtained with the Herschel/HIFI instrument towards bright dust continuum regions in the Galactic plane, probing simultaneously the diffuse gas along the line of sight and the background high-mass star forming regions. These data are complemented by single pointings in the 492 and 809 GHz fine structure lines of atomic carbon and by medium spectral resolution spectral maps of the fine structure lines of atomic oxygen at 63 and 145 µm with Herschel/PACS. Results. We show that the presence of foreground absorption may completely cancel the emission from the background source in medium spectral resolution PACS data and that high spectral resolution spectra are needed to interpret the [C II] and [OI] emission and the [C II]/FIR ratio. This phenomenon may explain part of the [C II]/FIR deficit seen in external luminous infrared galaxies where the bright emission from the nuclear regions may be partially canceled by absorption from diffuse gas in the foreground. The C+ and C excitation in the diffuse gas is consistent with a median pressure of ~5900 Kcm-3 for a mean kinetic temperature of 100 K. A few higher pressure regions are detected along the lines of sight, as emission features in both fine structure lines of atomic carbon. The knowledge of the gas density allows us to determine the filling factor of the absorbing gas along the selected lines of sight. The derived median value of the filling factor is 2.4%, in good agreement with the properties of the Galactic cold neutral medium. The mean excitation temperature is used to derive the average cooling due to C+ in the Galactic plane : 9.5 × 10-26 erg-1H-1. Along the observed lines of sight, the gas phase carbon abundance does not exhibit a strong gradient as a function of Galacto-centric radius and has a weighted average of C/H = 1.5 ± 0.4 × 10-4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the coordination chemistry of the primary phosphine PH2C(O)NH2 (phosphinecarboxamide) towards group 6 transition-metals. Experimental and theoretical studies reveal that this novel species has comparable electronic properties to PH3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The determination of the physical conditions in molecular clouds is a key step towards our understanding of their formation and evolution of associated star formation. We investigate the density, temperature, and column density of both dust and gas in the photodissociation regions (PDRs) located at the interface between the atomic and cold molecular gas of the NGC 7023 reflection nebula. We study how young stars affect the gas and dust in their environment. Aims. Several Herschel Space Telescope programs provide a wealth of spatial and spectral information of dust and gas in the heart of PDRs. We focus our study on Spectral and Photometric Image Receiver (SPIRE) Fourier-Transform Spectrometer (FTS) fully sampled maps that allow us for the first time to study the bulk of cool/warm dust and warm molecular gas (CO) together. In particular, we investigate if these populations spatially coincide, if and how the medium is structured, and if strong density and temperature gradients occur, within the limits of the spatial resolution obtained with Herschel. Methods. The SPIRE FTS fully sampled maps at different wavelengths are analysed towards the northwest (NW) and the east (E) PDRs in NGC 7023. We study the spatial and spectral energy distribution of a wealth of intermediate rotational 12CO 4 ⩽ Ju ⩽ 13 and 13CO 5 ⩽ Ju ⩽ 10 lines. A radiative transfer code is used to assess the gas kinetic temperature, density, and column density at different positions in the cloud. The dust continuum emission including Spitzer, the Photoconductor Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS), and SPIRE photometric and the Institute for Radio Astronomy in the Millimeter Range (IRAM) telescope data is also analysed. Using a single modified black body and a radiative transfer model, we derive the dust temperature, density, and column density. Results. The cloud is highly inhomogeneous, containing several irradiated dense structures. Excited 12CO and 13CO lines and warm dust grains localised at the edge of the dense structures reveal high column densities of warm/cool dense matter. Both tracers give a good agreement in the local density, column density, and physical extent, leading to the conclusion that they trace the same regions. The derived density profiles show a steep gradient at the cloud edge reaching a maximum gas density of 105-106 cm-3 in the PDR NGC 7023 NW and 104-105 cm-3 in the PDR NGC 7023 E and a subsequent decrease inside the cloud. Close to the PDR edges, the dust temperature (30 K and 20 K for the NW and E PDRs, respectively) is lower than the gas temperature derived from CO lines (65-130 K and 45-55 K, respectively). Further inside the cloud, the dust and gas temperatures are similar. The derived thermal pressure is about 10 times higher in NGC 7023 NW than in NGC 7023 E. Comparing the physical conditions to the positions of known young stellar object candidates in NGC 7023 NW, we find that protostars seem to be spatially correlated with the dense structures. Conclusions. Our approach combining both dust and gas delivers strong constraints on the physical conditions of the PDRs. We find dense and warm molecular gas of high column density in the PDRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present high resolution [N II] 205 μm (3P1 – 3 P0) spectra obtained with Herschel-HIFI towards a small sample of far-infrared bright star forming regions in the Galactic plane: W31C (G10.6–0.4), W49N (G43.2–0.1), W51 (G49.5–0.4), and G34.3+0.1. All sources display an emission line profile associated directly with the H II regions themselves. For the first time we also detect absorption of the [N II] 205 μm line by extended low-density foreground material towards W31C and W49N over a wide range of velocities. We attribute this absorption to the warm ionised medium (WIM) and find N(N+) ≈ 1.5 × 1017 cm-2 towards both sources. This is in agreement with recent Herschel-HIFI observations of [C II] 158 μm, also observed in absorption in the same sight-lines, if ≈7–10% of all C+ ions exist in the WIM on average. Using an abundance ratio of [N]/[H] = 6.76 × 10-5 in the gas phase we find that the mean electron and proton volume densities are ~0.1–0.3 cm-3 assuming a WIM volume filling fraction of 0.1–0.4 with a corresponding line-of-sight filling fraction of 0.46–0.74. A low density and a high WIM filling fraction are also supported by RADEX modelling of the [N II] 205 μm absorption and emission together with visible emission lines attributed mainly to the WIM. The detection of the 205 μm line in absorption emphasises the importance of a high spectral resolution, and also offers a new tool for investigation of the WIM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The Helix nebula (NGC 7293) is our closest planetary nebulae. Therefore, it is an ideal template for photochemical studies at small spatial scales in planetary nebulae. Aims. We aim to study the spatial distribution of the atomic and the molecular gas, and the structure of the photodissociation region along the western rims of the Helix nebula as seen in the submillimeter range with Herschel. Methods. We used five SPIRE FTS pointing observations to make atomic and molecular spectral maps. We analyzed the molecular gas by modeling the CO rotational lines using a non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (non-LTE) radiative transfer model. Results. For the first time, we have detected extended OH+ emission in a planetary nebula. The spectra towards the Helix nebula also show CO emission lines (from J = 4 to 8), [N ii] at 1461 GHz from ionized gas, and [C i] (3P2–3P1), which together with the OH+ lines trace extended CO photodissociation regions along the rims. The estimated OH+ column density is ~ 1012 − 1013 cm-2. The CH+ (1–0) line was not detected at the sensitivity of our observations. Non-LTE models of the CO excitation were used to constrain the average gas density (n(H2) ~ (1 − 5) × 105 cm-3) and the gas temperature (Tk ~ 20−40 K). Conclusions. The SPIRE spectral-maps suggest that CO arises from dense and shielded clumps in the western rims of the Helix nebula, whereas OH+ and [C i] lines trace the diffuse gas and the UV and X-ray illuminated clump surfaces where molecules reform after CO photodissociation. The [N ii] line traces a more diffuse ionized gas component in the interclump medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. Our aim is to study the response of the gas-to-energetic processes associated with high-mass star formation and compare it with previously published studies on low- and intermediate-mass young stellar objects (YSOs) using the same methods. The quantified far-IR line emission and absorption of CO, H2O, OH, and [Oi] reveals the excitation and the relative contribution of different atomic and molecular species to the gas cooling budget. Methods. Herschel/PACS spectra covering 55-190 μm are analyzed for ten high-mass star forming regions of luminosities Lbol ~ 104-106 L☉ and various evolutionary stages on spatial scales of ~104 AU. Radiative transfer models are used to determine the contribution of the quiescent envelope to the far-IR CO emission. Results. The close environments of high-mass protostars show strong far-IR emission from molecules, atoms, and ions. Water is detected in all 10 objects even up to high excitation lines, often in absorption at the shorter wavelengths and in emission at the longer wavelengths. CO transitions from J = 14-13 up to typically 29-28 (Eu/kB ~ 580-2400 K) show a single temperature component with a rotational temperature of Trot ~ 300 K. Typical H2O excitation temperatures are Trot ~250 K, while OH has Trot ~ 80 K. Far-IR line cooling is dominated by CO (~75%) and, to a smaller extent, by [Oi] (~20%), which becomes more important for the most evolved sources. H2O is less important as a coolant for high-mass sources because many lines are in absorption. Conclusions. Emission from the quiescent envelope is responsible for ~45-85% of the total CO luminosity in high-mass sources compared with only ~10% for low-mass YSOs. The highest-J lines (Jup ⩾ 20) originate most likely in shocks, based on the strong correlation of CO and H2O with physical parameters (Lbol, Menv) of the sources from low- to high-mass YSOs. The excitation of warm CO described by Trot ~ 300 K is very similar for all mass regimes, whereas H2O temperatures are ~100 K high for high-mass sources compared with low-mass YSOs. The total far-IR cooling in lines correlates strongly with bolometric luminosity, consistent with previous studies restricted to low-mass YSOs.Molecular cooling (CO, H2O, and OH) is ~4 times greater than cooling by oxygen atoms for all mass regimes. The total far-IR line luminosity is about 10-3 and 10-5 times lower than the dust luminosity for the low-and high-mass star forming regions, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Monoceros R2 (Mon R2), at a distance of 830 pc, is the only ultra-compact Hii region (UC Hii) where its associated photon-dominated region (PDR) can be resolved with the Herschel Space Observatory. Aims. Our aim is to investigate observationally the kinematical patterns in the interface regions (i.e., the transition from atomic to molecular gas) associated with Mon R2. Methods. We used the HIFI instrument on board Herschel to observe the line profiles of the reactive ions CH+, OH+, and H2 O+ toward different positions in Mon R2. We derive the column density of these molecules and compare them with gas-phase chemistry models. Results. The reactive ion CH+ is detected both in emission (at central and red-shifted velocities) and in absorption (at blue-shifted velocities). The OH+ ion is detected in absorption at both blue- and red-shifted velocities, with similar column densities; H2O+ is not detected at any of the positions, down to a rms of 40 mK toward the molecular peak. At this position, we find that the OH+ absorption originates in a mainly atomicmedium, and therefore is associated with the most exposed layers of the PDR. These results are consistent with the predictions from photo-chemical models. The line profiles are consistent with the atomic gas being entrained in the ionized gas flow along the walls of the cavity of the Hii region. Based on this evidence, we are able to propose a new geometrical model for this region. Conclusions. The kinematical patterns of the OH+ and CH+ absorption indicate the existence of a layer of mainly atomic gas for which we have derived, for the first time, some physical parameters and its dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Theoretical models and laboratory experiments show that CH3OH is efficiently formed on cold grain surfaces through the successive hydrogenation of CO, forming HCO and H2CO as intermediate species. In cold cores and low UV-field illumination photodissociation regions (PDRs) the ices can be released into the gas-phase through nonthermal processes such as photodesorption, which considerably increases their gas-phase abundances. Aims. We investigate the dominant formation mechanism of H2CO and CH3OH in the Horsehead PDR and its associated dense core. Methods. We performed deep integrations of several H2CO and CH3OH lines at two positions in the Horsehead, namely the PDR and dense core, with the IRAM-30 m telescope. In addition, we observed one H2CO higher-frequency line with the CSO telescope at both positions. We determined the H2CO and CH3OH column densities and abundances from the single-dish observations complemented with IRAM-PdBI high-angular resolution maps (6") of both species. We compared the observed abundances with PDR models including either pure gas-phase chemistry or both gas-phase and grain surface chemistry. Results. We derived CH3OH abundances relative to total number of hydrogen atoms of ~1.2×10-10 and ~2.3×10-10 in the PDR and dense-core positions, respectively. These abundances are similar to the inferred H2CO abundance in both positions (~2 × 10-10). We find an abundance ratio H2CO/CH3OH of ~2 in the PDR and ~1 in the dense core. Pure gas-phase models cannot reproduce the observed abundances of either H2CO or CH3OH at the PDR position. The two species are therefore formed on the surface of dust grains and are subsequently photodesorbed into the gas-phase at this position. At the dense core, on the other hand, photodesorption of ices is needed to explain the observed abundance of CH3OH, while a pure gas-phase model can reproduce the observed H2CO abundance. The high-resolution observations show that CH3OH is depleted onto grains at the dense core. CH3OH is thus present in an envelope around this position, while H2CO is present in both the envelope and the dense core itself. Conclusions. Photodesorption is an efficient mechanism to release complex molecules in low-FUV-illuminated PDRs, where thermal desorption of ice mantles is ineffective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Complex (iso-)nitrile molecules, such as CH3CN and HC3N, are relatively easily detected in our Galaxy and in other galaxies. Aims. We aim at constraining their chemistry through observations of two positions in the Horsehead edge: the photo-dissociation region (PDR) and the dense, cold, and UV-shielded core just behind it. Methods. We systematically searched for lines of CH3CN, HC3N, C3N, and some of their isomers in our sensitive unbiased line survey at 3, 2, and 1 mm. We stacked the lines of C3N to improve the detectability of this species. We derived column densities and abundances through Bayesian analysis using a large velocity gradient radiative transfer model. Results. We report the first clear detection of CH3NC at millimeter wavelength. We detected 17 lines of CH3CN at the PDR and 6 at the dense core position, and we resolved its hyperfine structure for 3 lines.We detected 4 lines of HC3N, and C3N is clearly detected at the PDR position.We computed new electron collisional rate coefficients for CH3CN, and we found that including electron excitation reduces the derived column density by 40% at the PDR position, where the electron density is 1-5 cm-3. While CH3CN is 30 times more abundant in the PDR (2.5 × 10-10) than in the dense core (8 × 10-12), HC3N has similar abundance at both positions (8 × 10-12). The isomeric ratio CH3NC/CH3CN is 0.15 ± 0.02. Conclusions. The significant amount of complex (iso-)nitrile molecule in the UV illuminated gas is puzzling as the photodissociation is expected to be efficient. This is all the more surprising in the case of CH3CN, which is 30 times more abundant in the PDR than in the dense core. In this case, pure gas phase chemistry cannot reproduce the amount of CH3CN observed in the UV-illuminated gas.We propose that CH3CN gas phase abundance is enhanced when ice mantles of grains are destroyed through photo-desorption or thermal-evaporation in PDRs, and through sputtering in shocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Sagittarius B2 is one of the most massive and luminous star-forming regions in the Galaxy and shows a very rich chemistry and physical conditions similar to those in much more distant extragalactic starbursts. Aims. We present large-scale far-infrared/submillimeter photometric images and broadband spectroscopic maps taken with the PACS and SPIRE instruments onboard Herschel. Methods. High angular resolution dust images (complemented with Spitzer MIPS 24 μm images) as well as atomic and molecular spectral maps were made and analyzed in order to constrain the dust properties, the gas physical conditions, and the chemical content of this unique region. Results. The spectra towards the Sagittarius B2 star-forming cores, B2(M) and B2(N), are characterized by strong CO line emission (from J = 4 to 16), emission lines from high-density tracers (HCN, HCO+, and H2S), [Nii] 205μm emission from ionized gas, and a large number of absorption lines from light hydride molecules (OH+, H2O+, H2O, CH+, CH, SH+, HF, NH, NH2, and NH3). The rotational population diagrams of CO suggest the presence of two different gas temperature components: an extended warm component with Trot ∼ 50-100 K, which is associated with the extended envelope, and a hotter component at Trot ∼ 200 K and Trot ∼ 300 K, which is only seen towards the B2(M) and B2(N) cores, respectively. As observed in other Galactic center clouds, such gas temperatures are significantly higher than the dust temperatures inferred from photometric images (Td ≃ 20-30 K). We determined far-IR luminosities (LFIR(M) ∼ 5 × 106 L⊙ and LFIR(N) ∼ 1.1 × 106 L⊙) and total dust masses (Md(M) ∼ 2300 M⊙ and Md(N) ∼ 2500 M⊙) in the cores. Non-local thermodynamic equilibrium models of the CO excitation were used to constrain the averaged gas density (n(H2) ∼ 106 cm-3) in the cores (i.e., similar or lower than the critical densities for collisional thermalization of midand high-J CO levels). A uniform luminosity ratio, L(CO)/LFIR ∼ (1-3) × 10-4, is measured along the extended envelope, suggesting that the same mechanism dominates the heating of the molecular gas at large scales. Conclusions. Sgr B2 shows extended emission from warm CO gas and cold dust, whereas only the cores show a hotter CO component. The detection of high-density molecular tracers and of strong [Nii] 205 μm line emission towards the cores suggests that their morphology must be clumpy to allow UV radiation to escape from the inner Hii regions. Together with shocks, the strong UV radiation field is likely responsible for the heating of the hot CO component. At larger scales, photodissociation regions models can explain both the observed CO line ratios and the uniform L(CO)/LFIR luminosity ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. We present a study of the sulfur-bearing species detected in a line confusion-limited survey towards Orion KL performed with the IRAM 30-m telescope in the frequency range 80-281 GHz. Aims. This study is part of an analysis of the line survey divided into families of molecules. Our aim is to derive accurate physical conditions, as well as molecular abundances, in the different components of Orion KL from observed SO and SO2 lines. Methods. As a starting point, we assumed local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) conditions obtain rotational temperatures. We then used a radiative transfer model, assuming either LVG or LTE excitation to derive column densities of these molecules in the different components of Orion KL. Results. We have detected 68 lines of SO, 34SO, 33SO, and S18O and 653 lines of SO2, 34SO2, 33SO2, SO18O, and SO2 ?2 = 1. We provide column densities for all of them and also upper limits for the column densities of S17O, 36SO, 34S18O, SO17O, and 34SO2 ?2 = 1 and for several undetected sulfur-bearing species. In addition, we present 2′ × 2′ maps around Orion IRc2 of SO2 transitions with energies from 19 to 131 K and also maps with four transitions of SO, 34SO, and 34SO2. We observe an elongation of the gas along the NE-SWdirection. An unexpected emission peak appears at 20.5 kms-1 in most lines of SO and SO2. A study of the spatial distribution of this emission feature shows that it is a new component of a few arcseconds (∼5″) in diameter, which lies ∼4″ west of IRc2. We suggest the emission from this feature is related to shocks associated to the BN object. Conclusions. The highest column densities for SO and SO2 are found in the high-velocity plateau (a region dominated by shocks) and in the hot core. These values are up to three orders of magnitude higher than the results for the ridge components. We also find high column densities for their isotopologues in both components. Therefore, we conclude that SO and SO2 are good tracers, not only of regions affected by shocks, but also of regions with warm dense gas (hot cores). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Understanding the physical phenomena involved in the earlierst stages of protostellar evolution requires knowledge of the heating and cooling processes that occur in the surroundings of a young stellar object. Spatially resolved information from its constituent gas and dust provides the necessary constraints to distinguish between different theories of accretion energy dissipation into the envelope. Aims. Our aims are to quantify the far-infrared line emission from low-mass protostars and the contribution of different atomic and molecular species to the gas cooling budget, to determine the spatial extent of the emission, and to investigate the underlying excitation conditions. Analysis of the line cooling will help us characterize the evolution of the relevant physical processes as the protostar ages. Methods. Far-infrared Herschel-PACS spectra of 18 low-mass protostars of various luminosities and evolutionary stages are studied in the context of the WISH key program. For most targets, the spectra include many wavelength intervals selected to cover specific CO, H2O, OH, and atomic lines. For four targets the spectra span the entire 55-200 µm region. The PACS field-of-view covers ~47" with the resolution of 9.4". Results. Most of the protostars in our sample show strong atomic and molecular far-infrared emission. Water is detected in 17 out of 18 objects (except TMC1A), including 5 Class I sources. The high-excitation H2O 818-707 63.3 µm line (Eu/kB = 1071 K) is detected in 7 sources. CO transitions from J = 14-13 up to J = 49 - 48 are found and show two distinct temperature components on Boltzmann diagrams with rotational temperatures of ~350 K and ~700 K. H2O has typical excitation temperatures of ~150 K. Emission from both Class 0 and I sources is usually spatially extended along the outflow direction but with a pattern that depends on the species and the transition. In the extended sources, emission is stronger off source and extended on =10?000 AU scales; in the compact sample, more than half of the flux originates within 1000 AU of the protostar. The H2O line fluxes correlate strongly with those of the high-J CO lines, both for the full array and for the central position, as well as with the bolometric luminosity and envelope mass. They correlate less strongly with OH fluxes and not with [OI] fluxes. In contrast, [OI] and OH often peak together at the central position. Conclusions. The PACS data probe at least two physical components. The H2O and CO emission very likely arises in non-dissociative (irradiated) shocks along the outflow walls with a range of pre-shock densities. Some OH is also associated with this component, most likely resulting from H2O photodissociation. UV-heated gas contributes only a minor fraction to the CO emission observed by PACS, based on the strong correlation between the shock-dominated CO 24-23 line and the CO 14-13 line. [OI] and some of the OH emission probe dissociative shocks in the inner envelope. The total far-infrared cooling is dominated by H2O and CO, with the fraction contributed by [OI] increasing for Class I sources. Consistent with previous studies, the ratio of total far-infrared line emission over bolometric luminosity decreases with the evolutionary state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The OH radical is a key species in the water chemistry network of star-forming regions, because its presence is tightly related to the formation and destruction of water. Previous studies of the OH far-infrared emission from low- and intermediate-mass protostars suggest that the OH emission mainly originates from shocked gas and not from the quiescent protostellar envelopes. Aims. We aim to study the excitation of OH in embedded low- and intermediate-mass protostars, determine the influence of source parameters on the strength of the emission, investigate the spatial extent of the OH emission, and further constrain its origin. Methods. This paper presents OH observations from 23 low- and intermediate-mass young stellar objects obtained with the PACS integral field spectrometer on-board Herschel in the context of the "Water In Star-forming regions with Herschel" (WISH) key program. Radiative transfer codes are used to model the OH excitation. Results. Most low-mass sources have compact OH emission (≲5000 AU scale), whereas the OH lines in most intermediate-mass sources are extended over the whole 47."0 × 47."0 PACS detector field-of-view (≳20 000 AU). The strength of the OH emission is correlated with various source properties such as the bolometric luminosity and the envelope mass, but also with the [OI] and H2O emission. Rotational diagrams for sources with many OH lines show that the level populations of OH can be approximated by a Boltzmann distribution with an excitation temperature at around 70 K. Radiative transfer models of spherically symmetric envelopes cannot reproduce the OH emission fluxes nor their broad line widths, strongly suggesting an outflow origin. Slab excitation models indicate that the observed excitation temperature can either be reached if the OH molecules are exposed to a strong far-infrared continuum radiation field or if the gas temperature and density are sufficiently high. Using realistic source parameters and radiation fields, it is shown for the case of Ser SMM1 that radiative pumping plays an important role in transitions arising from upper level energies higher than 300 K. The compact emission in the low-mass sources and the required presence of a strong radiation field and/or a high density to excite the OH molecules points toward an origin in shocks in the inner envelope close to the protostar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The abundances of interstellar CH+ and SH+ are not well understood as their most likely formation channels are highly endothermic. Several mechanisms have been proposed to overcome the high activation barriers, including shocks, turbulence, and H2 vibrational excitation. Aims. Using data from the Herschel Space Observatory, we studied the formation of ions, in particular CH+ and SH+ in a typical high UV-illumination warm and dense photon-dominated region (PDR), the Orion Bar. Methods. The HIFI instrument on board Herschel provides velocity-resolved line profiles of CH+ 1-0 and 2-1 and three hyperfine transitions of SH+ 12-01. The PACS instrument provides information on the excitation and spatial distribution of CH+ by extending the observed CH+ transitions up to J = 6-5. We compared the observed line intensities to the predictions of radiative transfer and PDR codes. Results. All CH+, SH+, and CF+ lines analyzed in this paper are seen in emission. The widths of the CH+ 2-1 and 1-0 transitions are of ~5 kms-1, significantly broader than the typical width of dense gas tracers in the Orion Bar (~2-3 km s-1) and are comparable to the width of species that trace the interclump medium such as C+ and HF. The detected SH+ transitions are narrower compared to CH+ and have line widths of ~3 kms-1, indicating that SH+ emission mainly originates in denser condensations. Non-LTE radiative transfer models show that electron collisions affect the excitation of CH+ and SH+ and that reactive collisions need to be taken into account to calculate the excitation of CH+. Comparison to PDR models shows that CH+ and SH+ are tracers of the warm surface region (AV < 1.5) of the PDR with temperatures between 500 and 1000 K.We have also detected the 5-4 transition of CF+ at a width of ~1.9 kms-1, consistent with the width of dense gas tracers. The intensity of the CF+ 5-4 transition is consistent with previous observations of lower-J transitions toward the Orion Bar. Conclusions. An analytic approximation and a numerical comparison to PDR models indicate that the internal vibrational energy of H2 can explain the formation of CH+ for typical physical conditions in the Orion Bar near the ionization front. The formation of SH+ is also likely to be explained by H2 vibrational excitation. The abundance ratios of CH+ and SH+ trace the destruction paths of these ions, and indirectly, the ratios of H, H2, and electron abundances as a function of depth into the cloud. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Pure gas-phase chemistry models do not succeed in reproducing the measured abundances of small hydrocarbons in the interstellar medium. Information on key gas-phase progenitors of these molecules sheds light on this problem. Aims. We aim to constrain the chemical content of the Horsehead mane with a millimeter unbiased line survey at two positions, namely the photo-dissociation region (PDR) and the nearby shielded core. This project revealed a consistent set of eight unidentified lines toward the PDR position. We associate them to the l-C3H+ hydrocarbon cation, which enables us to constrain the chemistry of small hydrocarbons. We observed the lowest detectable J line in the millimeter domain along a cut toward the illuminating direction to constrain the spatial distribution of the l-C3H+ emission perpendicular to the photo-dissociation front. Methods. We simultaneously fit 1) the rotational and centrifugal distortion constants of a linear rotor; and 2) the Gaussian line shapes located at the eight predicted frequencies. A rotational diagram is then used to infer the excitation temperature and the column density. We finally compare the abundance to the results of the Meudon PDR photochemical model. Results. Six out of the eight unidentified lines observable in the millimeter bands are detected with a signal-to-noise ratio from 6 to 19 toward the Horsehead PDR, while the two last ones are tentatively detected. Mostly noise appears at the same frequency toward the dense core, located less than 40" away. Moreover, the spatial distribution of the species integrated emission has a shape similar to radical species such as HCO, and small hydrocarbons such as C2H, which show enhanced abundances toward the PDR. The observed lines can be accurately fitted with a linear rotor model, implying a 1Σ ground electronic state. The deduced rotational constant value is B = 11 244.9512 ± 0.0015 MHz, close to that of l-C3H. Conclusions. This is the first detection of the l-C3H+ hydrocarbon in the interstellar medium. Laboratory spectroscopy is underway to confirm these results. Interferometric imaging is needed to firmly constrain the small hydrocarbon chemistry in the Horsehead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first complete ∼55-671 μm spectral scan of a low-mass Class 0 protostar (Serpens SMM1) taken with the PACS and SPIRE spectrometers onboard Herschel. More than 145 lines have been detected, most of them rotationally excited lines of 12CO (full ladder from Ju = 4-3 to 42-41 and Eu/k = 4971 K), H2O (up to 818-707 and Eu/k = 1036 K), OH (up to 2⨅1/2 J = 7/2-5/2 and Eu/k = 618 K), 13CO (up to Ju = 16-15), HCN and HCO+ (up to Ju = 12-11). Bright [OI]63, 145 μm and weaker [C II]158 and [C I]370, 609 μm lines are also detected, but excited lines from chemically related species (NH3, CH+, CO+, OH+ or H2O+) are not. Mid-infrared spectra retrieved from the Spitzer archive are also first discussed here. The ∼10-37 μm spectrum has many fewer lines, but shows clear detections of [Ne II], [Fe II], [Si II] and [S I] fine structure lines, as well as weaker H2 S(1) and S(2) pure rotational lines. The observed line luminosity is dominated by CO (∼54%), H2O (∼22%), [OI] (∼12%) and OH (∼9%) emission. A multi-component radiative transfer model allowed us to approximately quantify the contribution of the three different temperature components suggested by the 12CO rotational ladder (Thot k ≈ 800 K, Twarm k ≈ 375 K and Tcool k ≈ 150 K). Gas densities n(H2) ∼ 5 × 106 cm-3 are needed to reproduce the observed far-IR lines arising from shocks in the inner protostellar envelope (warm and hot components) for which we derive upper limit abundances of x(CO) ≲ 10-4, x(H2O) ≲ 0.2 × 10-5 and x(OH) ≲ 10-6 with respect to H2. The lower energy submm 12CO and H2O lines show more extended emission that we associate with the cool entrained outflow gas. Fast dissociative Jshocks (vs > 60 km s-1) within an embedded atomic jet, as well as lower velocity small-scale non-dissociative shocks (vs ≲ 20 km s-1) are needed to explain both the atomic fine structure lines and the hot CO and H2O lines respectively. Observations also show the signature of UV radiation (weak [CII] and [CI] lines and high HCO+/HCN abundance ratios) and thus, most observed species likely arise in UV-irradiated shocks. Dissociative J-shocks produced by a jet impacting the ambient material are the most probable origin of [OI] and OH emission and of a significant fraction of the warm CO emission. In addition, H2O photodissociation in UV-irradiated non-dissociative shocks along the outflow cavity walls can also contribute to the [OI] and OH emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Mon R2, at a distance of 830 pc, is the only ultracompact H?II region (UCH?II) where the associated photon-dominated region (PDR) can be resolved with Herschel. Owing to its brightness and proximity, it is one of the best-suited sources for investigating the chemistry and physics of highly UV-irradiated PDRs. Aims. Our goal is to estimate the abundance of H2O and NH3 in this region and investigate their origin. Methods. We present new observations ([C?II], 12CO, 13CO, C18O, o-H2O, p-H2O, o-HO and o-NH3) obtained with the HIFI instrument onboard Herschel and the IRAM-30?m telescope. We investigated the physical conditions in which these lines arise by analyzing their velocity structure and spatial variations. Using a large velocity gradient approach, we modeled the line intensities and derived an average abundance of H2O and NH3 across the region. Finally, we modeled the line profiles with a non-local radiative transfer model and compared these results with the abundance predicted by the Meudon PDR code. Results. The variations of the line profiles and intensities indicate complex geometrical and kinematical patterns. In several tracers ([C?II], CO 9 → 8 and H2O) the line profiles vary significantly with position and have broader line widths toward the H?II region. The H2O lines present strong self-absorption at the ambient velocity and emission in high-velocity wings toward the H?II region. The emission in the o-HO ground state line reaches its maximum value around the H?II region, has smaller linewidths and peaks at the velocity of the ambient cloud. Its spatial distribution shows that the o-HO emission arises in the PDR surrounding the H?II region. By modeling the o-HO emission and assuming the standard [16O] / [18O] = 500, we derive a mean abundance of o-H2O of ∼10-8 relative to H2. The ortho-H2O abundance, however, is larger (∼1 × 10-7) in the high-velocity wings detected toward the H?II region. Possible explanations for this larger abundance include an expanding hot PDR and/or an outflow. Ammonia seems to be present only in the envelope of the core with an average abundance of ∼2 × 10-9 relative to H2. Conclusions. The Meudon PDR code, which includes only gas-phase chemical networks, can account for the measured water abundance in the high velocity gas as long as we assume that it originates from a ≲ 1 mag hot expanding layer of the PDR, i.e. that the outflow has only a minor contribution to this emission. To explain the water and ammonia abundances in the rest of the cloud, the molecular freeze out and grain surface chemistry would need to be included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a part of the Herschel key programme PRISMAS, we have used the Herschel/HIFI instrument to observe interstellar nitrogen hydrides along the sight-lines towards eight high-mass star-forming regions in order to elucidate the production pathways leading to nitrogen-bearing species in diffuse gas. Here, we report observations towards W49N of the NH N = 1-0, J = 2-1, and J = 1-0, ortho-NH2 NKa,KcJ = 11,13/2-00,01/2, ortho-NH3 JK = 10-00 and 20-10, para-NH3 JK = 21-11 transitions, and unsuccessful searches for NH+. All detections show absorption by foreground material over a wide range of velocities, as well as absorption associated directly with the hot-core source itself. As in the previously published observations towards G10.6-0.4, the NH, NH2 and NH3 spectra towards W49N show strikingly similar and non-saturated absorption features. We decompose the absorption of the foreground material towards W49N into different velocity components in order to investigate whether the relative abundances vary among the velocity components, and, in addition, we re-analyse the absorption lines towards G10.6-0.4 in the same manner. Abundances, with respect to molecular hydrogen, in each velocity component are estimated using CH, which is found to correlate with H2 in the solar neighbourhood diffuse gas. The analysis points to a co-existence of the nitrogen hydrides in diffuse or translucent interstellar gas with a high molecular fraction. Towards both sources, we find that NH is always at least as abundant as both o-NH2 and o-NH3, in sharp contrast to previous results for dark clouds. We find relatively constant N(NH)/N(o-NH3) and N(o-NH2)/N(o-NH3) ratios with mean values of 3.2 and 1.9 towards W49N, and 5.4 and 2.2 towards G10.6-0.4, respectively. The mean abundance of o-NH3 is ~2 × 10-9 towards both sources. The nitrogen hydrides also show linear correlations with CN and HNC towards both sources, and looser correlations with CH. The upper limits on the NH+ abundance indicate column densities ≤2-14% of N(NH), which is in contrast to the behaviour of the abundances of CH+ and OH+ relative to the values determined for the corresponding neutrals CH and OH. Surprisingly low values of the ammonia ortho-to-para ratio are found in both sources, ≈ 0.5-0.7 ± 0.1, in the strongest absorption components. This result cannot be explained by current models as we had expected to find a value of unity or higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]