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Abstract In mountainous areas, wild edible plants are an important part of the local diet. Climate change and anthropogenic activities have profound effects on wild edible plants in these areas. Ethnobotanical studies are important for understanding the use patterns and harvest impacts on these plants. In this regard, the Shahrood region, with its diverse historical/ethnic background, is an appropriate starting point to investigate exploitation patterns and impacts of harvest of wild edible plants. During 2021–2022, ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in 12 villages in the region using semi-structured interviews and participatory observations. Data collection included assessing wild edible plant species diversity, their habitats, collection time and quantities, plant parts used and methods of consumption and preparation. The data were analyzed using use report indicators, relative frequency of citations, and use value (UV). A total of 1086 use reports were documented from a total of 44 interviews. A total of 67 wild species (66 plants and 1 fungus) belonging to 54 genera and 24 families were used as edible in the study area. Rosaceae (9 species), Apiaceae (8), Lamiaceae (8), Asteraceae (7), and Amaryllidaceae (5) were the families with the most reported species. Allium (5 species) was the most diverse genus in terms of species diversity. Herbs were the most commonly used life form (79.1%), followed by shrubs (13.4%) and trees (6%). The most consumed plant parts were young leaves (25%) and young aerial parts (21.4%). There were 13 use categories identified. The majority of edible plants were collected in April–May, mainly from areas nearby villages (37.7%) and rangelands (33.7%). The most important edible plants in the study area were Allium iranicum (Wendelbo) Wendelbo (UV = 1.7), Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. (1.5), Allium umbilicatum Boiss. (1.47), Tragopogon graminifolius DC. (1.38), Lepidium draba L. (1.27), Urtica dioica L. (1.18), Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. (1.13), Malva neglecta Wallr. (1.11) and Eremurus sp. (1.09). Our results showed diverse and valuable knowledge for wild edible plants in this region, which should be considered in the conservation and management plans in the region.

Abstract Plant community assembly is the outcome of long-term evolutionary events (evident as taxonomic diversity; TD) and immediate adaptive fitness (functional diversity; FD); a balance expected to shift in favour of FD in ‘harsh’ habitats under intense selection pressures. We compared TD and FD responses along climatic and edaphic gradients for communities of two species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus and D. polylepis) endemic to the montane steppes of the Khorassan-Kopet Dagh floristic province, NE Iran. 75 plots at 15 sites were used to relate TD and FD to environmental gradients. In general, greater TD was associated with variation in soil factors (potassium, lime, organic matter contents), whereas FD was constrained by aridity (drought adaptation). Crucially, even plant communities hosting different subspecies of D. polylepis responded differently to aridity: D. polylepis subsp. binaludensis communities included a variety of broadly stress-tolerant taxa with no clear environmental response, but TD of D. polylepis subsp. polylepis communities was directly related to precipitation, with consistently low FD reflecting a few highly specialized stress-tolerators. Integrating taxonomic and functional diversity metrics is essential to understand the communities hosting even extremely closely related taxa, which respond idiosyncratically to climate and soil gradients.

Understanding the different patterns of plant diversity and distribution along the environmental gradients is essential for managing ecosystems, especially in fragmented habitats due to intensive human pressure. The Darkash area is located in the western Aladagh Mountains in Khorassan-Kopet Dagh Floristic Province. The easternmost patches of the Hyrcanian montane forests grow in this area. The three main vegetation types in the area are shrublands/scrub forests, oak forests (Quercus castaneifolia), and subalpine vegetation. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the plant diversity in the understory of plant communities along the elevational gradient. We sampled 187 vegetation plots (2m x 2m) along a 1300m elevational gradient (in 100-m classes) using the stratified-random method and estimated the abundance and canopy cover of the species. Floristic characteristics and different diversity indices were measured. In total, 252 plant species belonging to 161 genera and 44 families were identified. Of these, 41 species were found to be endemic or semi-endemic. Hemicryptophytes and therophytes are the dominant life-forms in the study area. The Irano-Turanian elements (46.8%) make the major chorotype in the flora of the area, followed by Bi-regional (17.5%), Tri-regional (17.5%), Pluri-regional (11.5%), and Euro-Siberian (6.7%) elements. The shrubland understory has the highest Hill's and beta diversity indices, followed by the oak forest and the subalpine understory. The biodiversity changes sinusoidally along the elevation. In order to protect plant species, especially young oak seedlings, it is recommended to create a protective corridor along the elevational gradient in this area. This strategy is essential to protect plant diversity in these habitats.

Halimocnemis commixta is recorded as a new species for the flora of Iran from Pistacia vera woodland remnants in NE Iran. It grows on open salty soils with several typical halophytic plants. The new species record is illustrated and compared with the closely related species. It can be distinguished from H. gamocarpa by its clustered flowers and irregularly horned fruits and differs from H. pilosa by its entirely short and adpressed hairs. We provide some additional notes on the distribution, ecology, and conservation status of the newly recorded species.

Piptatherum ferganense is recorded as a new grass species for the flora of Iran collected from Ghorkhod Protected Area and Aladagh Mountains in North Khorassan province. The core distribution range of the species is Eastern Irano-Turanian with a disjunction in northeastern Iran. The morphological characters of P. ferganense are illustrated and compared with the closely related P. latifolium. It can be distinguished from P. latifolium by its evenly arranged spikelets in the panicle, lanceolate fertile lemma, and shorter lemma awns. Notes on taxonomy, ecology, phytogeography, and conservation status of the recorded species are provided.

Abstract The interspecific plant interactions along grazing and aridity stress gradients represent a major research issue in plant ecology. However, the combined effects of these two factors on plant–plant interactions have been poorly studied in the northeast of Iran. To fill this knowledge gap, 144 plots were established in 12 study sites with different grazing intensities (high vs. low) and climatic characteristics (arid vs. semiarid) in northeastern Iran. A dominant shrub, Artemisia kopetdaghensis, was selected as the model species. Further, we studied changes in plant life strategies along the combined grazing and aridity stress gradients. In this study, we used relative interaction indices calculated for species richness, Shannon diversity, and species cover to determine plant–plant interactions using linear mixed‐effect models (LMM). The indicator species analysis was used to identify the indicator species for the undercanopy of shrub and for the adjacent open areas. The combined effects of grazing and aridity affected the plant–plant interactions and plant life strategies (CSR) of indicator species. A. kopetdaghensis showed the highest facilitation effect under high stress conditions (high grazing, high aridity), which turned into competition under the low stress conditions (low grazing, low aridity). In the arid region, the canopy of the shrub protected ruderals, annual forbs, and grasses in both high and low grazing intensities. In the semiarid region and high grazing intensity (low aridity/high grazing), the shrubs protected mostly perennial forbs with C‐strategy. Our findings highlight the importance of context‐dependent shrub management to restore the vegetation damaged by the intensive grazing.

Abstract In grazing conditions, unpalatable species may induce either associational defense or neighbor contrast susceptibility in neighboring communities. Using surveys from eight grasslands, we tested whether various unpalatable species have the same impacts on neighboring communities in response to grazing. The studied unpalatable species were: Phlomis cancellata (an unpalatable nonpoisonous plant), Euphorbia boissieriana, E. microsciadia (poisonous plants), and Seseli transcaucasicum (a highly poisonous plant). Our results showed that, in the ungrazed grasslands, communities containing P. cancellata had lower biodiversity than communities without it. In the moderately- and heavily grazed grasslands, P. cancellata induced associational defense in the neighboring communities. In heavily grazed grasslands, both Euphorbia species promoted neighbor contrast susceptibility in the neighboring communities. Similarly, S. transcaucasicum in a heavily grazed grassland, induced neighbor contrast susceptibility. Different responses of plant community vulnerability among the studied unpalatable plants might be due to herbivore different foraging decisions. Accordingly, grazers selectively choose from other patches when facing P. cancellata and other plant individuals when there is a poisonous plant in a patch. Our results suggested that grazing intensity may not substantially affect the foraging decisions of sheep and goats in response to unpalatable species. We recommend monitoring the abundance of poisonous species to maintain the sustainable use of grasslands.

Abstract Endemic plants of the Khorassan-Kopet Dagh (KK) floristic province in northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, and northwestern Afghanistan are often rare and range-restricted. Because of these ranges, plants in the KK are vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Species distribution modelling (SDM) can be used to assess the vulnerability of species under climate change. Here, we evaluated range size changes for three (critically) endangered endemic species that grow at various elevations (Nepeta binaloudensis, Phlomoides binaludensis, and Euphorbia ferdowsiana) using species distribution modelling. Using the HadGEM2-ES general circulation model and two Representative Concentration Pathways Scenarios (RCP 2.6 and RCP 8.5), we predicted potential current and future (2050 and 2070) suitable habitats for each species. The ensemble model of nine algorithms was used to perform this prediction. Our results indicate that while two of species investigated would benefit from range expansion in the future, P. binaludensis will experience range contraction. The range of E. ferdowsiana will remain limited to the Binalood mountains, but the other species will have suitable habitats in mountain ranges across the KK. Using management efforts (such as fencing) with a focus on providing elevational migration routes at local scales in the KK is necessary to conserve these species. Additionally, assisted migration among different mountains in the KK would be beneficial to conserve these plants. For E. ferdowsiana, genetic diversity storage employing seed banks and botanical garden preservation should be considered.

Abstract Many endangered species are distributed in narrow geographic ranges, often at severe risk of extinction. Ecological niche modeling can be used to identify suitable areas, which can be surveyed to detect additional populations. We combined remotely sensed data (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and field sampling to increase distributional knowledge of the species and improve understanding of its conservation status. We identified numerous new sites for a rare plant (Dianthus pseudocrinitus) and tested model‐based predictions of its full geographic distribution. Using only eight occurrences, we developed initial models, which guided detailed field sampling: 11 new sites were identified, but models were unable to predict better than random expectations. A second round of models did show significant predictive ability and pointed to a broader geographic and environmental distribution of the species. As a consequence, the conservation status of the species should be upgraded from Critically Endangered to Endangered. We identified six protected areas (Golestan, Ghorkhoud, Miandasht, Salouk, Sarani, Sarigol) that likely hold populations of this species; one area adjacent to Ghorkhoud Protected Area, if protected, would protect the best‐known populations of the species. Our results highlight the importance of combining modeling with field sampling in characterizing distributions of rare and endangered species.

Phelipanche pouyanii is described here as a new species from South Khorassan Province, East of Iran. Its diagnostic morphological features are the calyx teeth being far longer than the calyx tube and staminal filaments being glabrous. These characters clearly differentiated the new species from its closely related taxa, i.e., P. mutelii, P. angustelaciniata and P. nana. Results obtained from the pollen and seed micromorphological characters showed no significant taxonomic value in the delimitation of the new species from its closely related species. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, however, showed sufficient differences to delineate the new species from its closely related species.

Overgrazing affects plant communities, and is a significant disturbance factor in arid and semi-arid regions. The immediate changes of plant communities after overgrazing in the disturbed arid ecosystems of Iran have been poorly studied. We recorded data from 100 random samples before and after overgrazing in the Golbahar plain located in the northeastern Iran to determine the changes in the plant physiognomic, species composition, and diversity after overgrazing. We compared life-forms spectra, change in the RIVI of the recorded plant species, species composition, and species diversity before and after the grazing. Our results showed that therophytes were the dominant life-form in the area, and decreased after overgrazing. The community composition of the area remained unchanged after overgrazing. Species diversity at the level of rare and frequent species reduced after overgrazing. Our findings implied that overgrazing could not immediately affect the community structure of degraded arid areas. However, it causes changes that might reduce ecosystem services in them. It is not possible to completely exclude grazers in such areas, fencing or reducing the number of the livestock entries should be applied to restore the vegetation in the area.

The Hezar-Masjed Mountain range is one of the main highlands of the northeasten Iran. The vegetation of its upper elevations has been poorly studied. This study aimed to compare the plant biodiversity of different aspects of the Hezar-Masjed Summit. A total number of 139 random 1m2 plots were recorded from different aspects of the study area. In each plot, the abundance and canopy cover percent of vascular plant species were recorded. Hill’s numbers (i.e., N1, N2) along with the Camargo evenness index and total species richness with bootstrapping approach were calculated. Rarefaction method was used to compare species richness among the aspects. Also, Hill’s diversity profile for each aspect was drawn. For each aspect, rank-abundance method was used to evaluate the dominant species. Biodiversity calculations and statistical analyses were performed using R software. The east- and south- facingslopes were found to have the highest and lowest indices in richness, evenness, and diversity, respectively. Despite adequate water availability in north-facing slopes, they show lower diversity than that of the east-facing slope, probably due to the of dominance of a poisonous species (Seseli transcaucasicum). Our results shown that in the Hezar-Masjed Summit, aspects have different biodiversity which is a result of their various environmental conditions.

Abstract Understanding the responses of vegetation characteristics and soil properties to grazing in different precipitation regimes is useful for the management of rangelands, especially in the arid regions. In northeastern Iran, we studied the responses of vegetation to livestock grazing in three regions with different climates: arid, semiarid, and subhumid. In each region, we selected 6–7 pairwise sampling areas of high versus low grazing intensity and six traits of the present species were recorded on 1 m2 plots—five grazed and five ungrazed in each area. The overall fertility was compared using the dissimilarity analysis, and linear mixed‐effect models were used to compare the individual fertility parameters, functional diversity indices, and species traits between the plots with high and low grazing intensity and between the climatic regions. Both climate and grazing, as well as their interaction, affected fertility parameters, functional diversity indices, and the representation of species traits. Grazing reduced functional evenness, height of the community, the representation of annuals, but increased the community leaf area. In the subhumid region, grazing also reduced functional richness. Further, grazing decreased the share of annual species in the semiarid region and seed mass in the arid region. Larger leaf area and seed mass, smaller height and lower share of annuals were associated with intensive grazing. Species with large LA and seed mass, lower height and perennials can be therefore presumed to tolerate trampling and benefit from high nutrient levels, associated with intensive grazing. By providing a detailed view on the impacts of overgrazing, this study highlights the importance of protection from grazing as an effective management tool for maintaining the pastoral ecosystems. In general, the composition of plant traits across the pastures of northeastern Iran was more affected by intensive grazing than by the differences in climate.

Abstract It is well‐known that pistes have adverse effects on alpine ecosystems. Previous studies urged that pistes should be installed and managed in the ways to minimize negative impacts on natural habitats. However, the impacts of this type of management on the plant communities are not widely studied. The aim of this study was to examine species composition and biodiversity changes in an environmentally friendly managed piste in northeast Iran. This piste has been established in a previously degraded alpine landscape. For the vegetation survey, we sampled 44 within and 28 off‐piste plots. Except for the piste management, other environmental factors were similar between the piste and off‐piste plots. Dominant species were determined, and variation in community composition of the two areas was visualized. Also, native species, phylogenetic, and functional Hill diversity of the two areas were compared. The results showed that there was a moderate differentiation in the species composition of the piste and off‐piste. Two palatable species (i.e., Bupleurum falcatum and Melica persica) were dominant in the piste and were not recorded in the off‐piste. The diversity calculations results showed that the species diversity of the piste was higher than that of the off‐piste. Phylogenetic diversity at the level of frequent and dominant plants showed a similar result. The piste had a higher functional diversity in terms of functional richness, and functional diversity of frequent and dominant plants. Our findings imply, after 10 years, species, phylogenetic, and functional diversity of the piste is significantly improved. Environmentally friendly piste management (EFPM) induced species composition change that led to emerging species that were absent in the off‐piste. We can conclude that EFPM led to restoration of a degraded landscape. Long‐term impacts of EFPM are still unknown, therefore, caution should be undertaken regarding the installation of new environmentally friendly pistes in other areas.

Plantago lagocephala is recorded as a new species for the flora of Iran from Razavi Khorassan Province. It is compared with the closely related species including P. lachnantha, P. ciliata and P. psammophila. Moreover, the diagnostic morphological characters and a distribution map are provided. The conservation status of the new record is evaluated based on the IUCN red list categories and criteria.

Endemic and restricted-range species are considered to be particularly vulnerable to the effects of environmental change, which makes assessing likely climate change effects on geographic distributions of such species important to the development of integrated conservation strategies. Here, we determined distributional patterns for an endemic species of Dianthus (Dianthus polylepis) in the Irano-Turanian region using a maximum-entropy algorithm. In total, 70 occurrence points and 19 climatic variables were used to estimate the potential distributional area under current conditions and two future representative concentration pathway (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5) scenarios under seven general circulation models for 2050. Mean diurnal range, iso-thermality, minimum temperature of coldest quarter, and annual precipitation were major factors that appeared to structure the distribution of the species. Most current potential suitable areas were located in montane regions. Model transfers to future-climate scenarios displayed upward shifts in elevation and northward shifts geographically for the species. Our results can be used to define high-priority areas in the Irano-Turanian region for conservation management plans for this species and can offer a template for analyses of other endangered and threatened species in the region.

The genus Carex L. is one of the largest genera (2000 spp.) of the flowering plants . There are 85 species of Carex in Iran plateau that approximately half of them are present in Iran. In this study, stem and leaf anatomy of 12 species and subspecies of Carex from two subgenera, Carex and Vignea, were investigated using hand cutting method and blue toluidine staining. The results showed that some of anatomical features such as, location of vascular bundles, size of air cavities, type of triangular stem, number of sclerenchyma layer and amount of lignified stem and cuticle thickness were effective in determining the species. This study did not confirm the classical taxonomy based on morphological characteristics and the results revealed that anatomical characteristics were correlated with plant water conditions.

Cuscuta is a common plant parasite and is able to attack several host species. Its haustoria could be penetrated into the phloem of host plant. In this study, the stem anatomy of six species and two varieties of Cuscuta (Cuscuta campestris, C. monogyna, C. brevistyla, C. kotschyana, C. epithymum, C. pedicellata, C. lehmanniana var. lehmanniana and C. babylonica var. babylonica) distributed in Khorassan provinces were investigated using the blue toluidine staining. Cross sections were provided by hand. Results showed that anatomical characters including stem diameter, position and distribution of vessels, number and size of vessels and number of parenchymatous layers were effective traits to taxonomically separate the species under study. Furthermore, the anatomical relationship between parasite and its host plant was examined.

The genus Matthiola R. BR. (Brassicaceae) consists of 48 species in the Iranian plateau, of which only seven species are distributed in northeast of Iran. Six species erre collected from the region under study including M. afghanica, M. alyssifolia, M. chenopodiifolia, M. chorassanica, M. dumulosa and M. farinose. Two species, M. flavida and M. revoluta were recorded for the first time in this study. Some specimens of an unknown taxon entitled Matthiola sp. are also collected in the region and included in the present study. In this study, we tried to use a set of morphologically informative characters which could determine species boundaries and also provide appropriate identification key to the genus in the northeast of Iran. 71 morphological features including quantitative and qualitative were examined on 68 herbarium and field-collected accessions followed by statistical analyses. The results of the univariate analysis indicated that "presence/absence of trichome on the stem and leaf" and "presence/absence of glandular trichomes on the sepal and pedicel" did not significantly differentiate the species and they were excluded from the subsequent analysis. The results of multivariate analysis showed that the species under study were grouped within three groups. First group included specimens of the species M. alyssifolia, the species M. afghanica, M. chenopodiifolia, M. dumulosa, M. farinosa, M. flavida and Matthiola sp. were placed in second group and third group included specimens of the two species M. chorassanica and M. revoluta.

“Helali protected area” has been officially announced as a no-hunting zone since 1997 and then, became a protected area in 2006. This area with ca. 63495 hectares, is located in the west of Gonabad and southeast of Bajestan, Khorasan-e Razavi province. The area includes mountains, plains and foothills and has a dry and desert climate with warm summers and cold winters based on De Martonne’s aridity index. In investigation of the flora, 318 vascular plant species belonging to 205 genera and 53 families were identified. The most dominant families were Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Brassicaceae with 53, 30, and 26 plant species, respectively. Chorological classification of the flora showed that the majority of the species (56.3%) belonged to the Irano-Turanian region. Pluri-regional, cosmopolitan and sub-cosmopolitan elements made up 14.1% of the flora which reflected a disturbance history in the area. Therophytes (47.5%) and hemicryptophytes (26.1%) were the most important life forms according to Raunkiaer classification.

Tissue culture methods provide tools to supplement traditional methods for collection, propagation and preservation of endangered plant species. In this study, in vitro propagation of Diaphanoptera khorasanica Rech.f., a rare and threatened plant species with limited distribution range and population was investigated. This species has a potential as an ornamental plant. Single node explants were provided from both adult and seedling sources. Several disinfection treatments were tried to permit selection of a suitable method. Different growth regulators were used for establishment, proliferation and rooting stages. Explants showed the highest establishment percentage after 5 min treatment with 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), cultured in MS medium containing 2.2 μM 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 2.4 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The highest proliferation of explants from both adult and seedling source explants was obtained from media supplemented by BA treatment in contrast to TDZ. No significant differences were found between different concentrations of BAP and TDZ. Proliferated shoots in TDZ were longer and had more internode length and less vitrification, in comparison with those in BAP. In vitro rooting of proliferated shoots just induced in liquid half-strength MS medium and rooting was not observed in solid medium. The shoots that originated from adult plants gave rise to the highest rooting rate with 4.8μM α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 2.4 μM, but NAA rooted plantlets showed higher survival percentage in acclimatization step. This study was aimed towards developing an efficient protocol for in vitro propagation of D. khorasanica and conservation of this vulnerable species.

In vitro methods provide a variety of tools to supplement traditional methods for collection, propagation and preservation of endangered plant species. In this study, an efficient protocol was developed for in vitro propagation of Colutea gifana, a rare and endangered plant species with limited reproductive capacity that grows in a narrow area of Iran. Single node explants were used for a series of experiments to select the appropriate disinfection method and growth regulators for establishment, proliferation and rooting stages. Explants showed the highest establishment percent after treatment with 2% Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) for 15 min, cultured in MS medium containing 2.2 μM 6-benzylaminopurine (BA) and 1 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). In proliferation stage, 8.8 μM of BA was more effective cytokinin than Kinetin (Kin) and Thidiazuron (TDZ) for growth induction of axillary shoots. In vitro rooting of proliferated shoots was induced in halfstrength MS medium in all concentrations of both tested auxins i.e. IBA and α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). Eighty percent of the plantlets were successfully acclimatized to ex vitro conditions, showed normal development. These plants were used to replenish declining populations in the collection sites and conserve C. gifana from extinction.