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Numerous studies have been conducted to examine the effects of an instructor's pointing gestures on learning performance across a wide range of academic domains. There are, however, few clear instructional guidelines for enhancing learning from this visual guidance. This study tested the combined effects of the coach's pointing gesture and gaze guidance on attention and recall performance in field-based sports. This study used a 3 (control vs. gesture vs. gesture/gaze) × 2 (novice vs. expert) between-subjects factorial design. Results showed a significant interaction effect between expertise level and experimental conditions on visual attention and memorization performance. Novice players scored higher after studying tactical instructions with pointing gestures and gaze guidance than players who studied the same instructions with pointing gestures, who in turn performed better than players who received instructions without cues. Expert players showed the same level of performance when they received the instructions without cues and with pointing gestures. However, they showed lower performance (notably in the visual attention and the mental effort measures) when they received the video with pointing gestures and gaze guidance compared to the instructions without gestures and with pointing gestures. These results suggest that the effectiveness of nonverbal visual guidance changes depending on the players' level of expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Previous research in the field of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has not yet comprehensively investigated the interaction between learners' expertise and the instructional effectiveness. Aims: Taking cognitive load theory as the theoretical framework, a study was conducted to investigate the expertise reversal effect on learning English and mathematics simultaneously: whether an integrated approach (i.e. learning both English and mathematics simultaneously) could facilitate the acquisition of mathematic skills and English linguistic skills as a foreign language more effectively and efficiently than a separated learning approach (i.e. learning Mathematics and English separately). Materials: The materials for the integrated learning approach were in English‐only, and the materials for the separated learning approach were in English‐and‐Chinese. Both sets of materials were given as reading content for teaching mathematic skills and English as a foreign language. Methods: The study adopted a 2 (language expertise: low vs. high) × 2 (instruction: integrated vs. separated) between‐subject factorial design with instructional approaches and learners' expertise in English as independent variables, the learning performance in Mathematics and English with the cognitive load ratings as the dependent variables. Sixty‐five Year‐10 students with lower expertise in English and 56 Year‐2 college students with higher expertise in English in China were recruited and allocated to two instructional conditions respectively. Results: An expertise reversal effect was confirmed: the English and mathematics integrated learning approach was more effective for higher expertise learners while the English and mathematics separated learning condition was more beneficial for lower expertise learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated interactions between learner expertise and task complexity evaluated from both cognitive and affective perspectives. One hundred and seventy‐three students, both novices and advanced learners, were asked to learn Japanese writing in a pen‐tablet‐based digital learning environment with varying task complexity levels. Cognitive load and learning‐centred emotions were measured at intervals during learning, while writing performance was monitored by runtime tracking. Results indicated that while advanced learners performed better than novices across the range of task complexity, the moderate task complexity was shown to be superior in enhancing performance for both levels of expertise. Results for learning‐centred emotions showed that advanced learners reported lower enjoyment and higher frustration when completing the low complexity task, whereas the moderately complex task was reported to be the most enjoyable and less frustrating for these learners. No significant difference in emotions was found across levels of task complexity for novices. Finally, a constructed composite indicator of cognitive‐affective efficiency of instructional conditions showed a significant interaction between levels of learner expertise and task complexity primarily caused by affective factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High school students have been reported to have difficulties solving complex algebraic problems. This study therefore investigated the effects of worked example instruction on students' learning outcomes in solving complex algebraic problems. The study was a quasi-experiment that involved a pre-test, an intervention, a post-test, and a delay test. The responses of 72 students (aged 14 to 15 years) were scored following the structure of the observed learning outcomes (SOLO) model and analysed using the Rasch model and regression analysis. The results indicated a significant effect of worked examples from the pre-test to the post-test; however, this effect was not completely retained at the delay test. Also, worked examples had a larger effect on the low-ability students than the highability students, but student gender neither influenced nor interacted with learning outcomes at the post-test and delay test. Lastly, the results revealed an interaction between the worked example effects and students' expertise level, with the highability students experiencing a full reversal of the worked example effect. These results are explained with respect to element interactivity and expertise reversal effects, and inform mathematics educators and teachers of the conditions of the worked example effect and the implications for classroom practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study investigates the effects of annotation on abstract and concrete visual representations in science education. Two studies were conducted: Study 1 investigated the interaction between annotation and visual representations. The results of this study demonstrated that in science learning, annotation with abstract visual representations was superior to annotation with concrete visual representations. Study 2 tested the expertise reversal effect in a three-factor design where the interaction among annotation, visual representation, and prior knowledge was measured. The findings showed that high-prior-knowledge learners performed better in the annotation-abstract visual condition than in the annotation-concrete visual condition where low-prior-knowledge learners showed the opposite outcome—confirming that the expertise reversal effect is at play in how science learners utilize visual information. The study has clarified the roles of prior knowledge, visual representation, and instructional strategy on learner cognitive processing in science education. This knowledge should prove useful for educators as they engage in the design and development of computer-based science learning.

Several studies highlight the importance of the order of different instructional methods when designing learning environments. Correct but also erroneous worked examples are frequently used methods to foster students' learning performance, especially in problem-solving. However, so far no study examined how the order of these example types affects learning. While the expertise reversal effect would suggest presenting correct examples first, the productive failure approach hypothesizes the reversed order to be learning-facilitating. In addition, congruency of subsequent exemplified problems was tested as a moderator of the effect of order on learning. For example, with arithmetic tasks, congruent problems target exactly the same calculation while incongruent problems refer to different calculations. Following cascade theory, a model of cognitive skill acquisition, presenting correct examples first should be more effective when the subsequent exemplified problems are different. To test the (conflicting) hypotheses, 83 university students were assigned to one of the four conditions in a 2 (correct vs. erroneous example first) x 2 (same vs. different exemplified problems) between-subject design. Learners navigated through a slideshow on the topic of Vedic mathematics consisting of explicit instruction, worked examples differing in terms of the experimental condition, and transfer problems. Although no main or interaction effects were found regarding students' learning performance, mediational analysis offered support for the expertise reversal effect, as it indicated that there is a significant indirect effect of order via mental load on learning. Presenting correct examples first and erroneous examples second resulted in a lower mental load, which in turn was associated with better learning performance. In contrast, presenting erroneous examples first and correct examples second resulted in a more accurate self-assessment of learning performance. These findings offer first insights into the question of how the presentation order of different example types impacts learning and provide practical recommendations for the design of educational media. Results are discussed in light of the ongoing debate regarding the question if less guided instructional methods should precede or succeed more guided methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several studies highlight the importance of the order of different instructional methods when designing learning environments. Correct but also erroneous worked examples are frequently used methods to foster students’ learning performance, especially in problem-solving. However, so far no study examined how the order of these example types affects learning. While the expertise reversal effect would suggest presenting correct examples first, the productive failure approach hypothesizes the reversed order to be learning-facilitating. In addition, congruency of subsequent exemplified problems was tested as a moderator of the effect of order on learning. For example, with arithmetic tasks, congruent problems target exactly the same calculation while incongruent problems refer to different calculations. Following cascade theory, a model of cognitive skill acquisition, presenting correct examples first should be more effective when the subsequent exemplified problems are different. To test the (conflicting) hypotheses, 83 university students were assigned to one of the four conditions in a 2 (correct vs. erroneous example first) × 2 (same vs. different exemplified problems) between-subject design. Learners navigated through a slideshow on the topic of Vedic mathematics consisting of explicit instruction, worked examples differing in terms of the experimental condition, and transfer problems. Although no main or interaction effects were found regarding students’ learning performance, mediational analysis offered support for the expertise reversal effect, as it indicated that there is a significant indirect effect of order via mental load on learning. Presenting correct examples first and erroneous examples second resulted in a lower mental load, which in turn was associated with better learning performance. In contrast, presenting erroneous examples first and correct examples second resulted in a more accurate self-assessment of learning performance. These findings offer first insights into the question of how the presentation order of different example types impacts learning and provide practical recommendations for the design of educational media. Results are discussed in light of the ongoing debate regarding the question if less guided instructional methods should precede or succeed more guided methods.

• DGBL-based DfS training averts expertise reversal effect. • Authenticity, detailed explanations make DGBL effective. • Leaderboard feature may be optional for game design. • Demonstrated the feasibility of using 3D simulation DGBL for teaching DfS. Globally, there is a pressing need to train more construction professionals in Design for Safety (DfS). Conventional instructional methods like video watching and lectures may not effectively meet professionals' need for training programmes that are relevant to real-life. Digital game-based learning (DGBL) is a proven educational tool, yet its application in professional DfS training remains inadequately explored. This study examined DGBL's effectiveness using the SafeSim Design game to train construction professionals in DfS. A quasi-experiment was conducted to compare the effect of DGBL with that of online videos covering the same training contents. In total, 246 construction professionals participated in the course and 61 were interviewed or took part in a focus group discussion. We evaluated the change in pre- and post-course quiz scores, assignment scores, questionnaire responses, and qualitative data. We found that DGBL benefitted trainees more equally across different levels of prior experience. The results contribute to the literature by pointing out the importance of occupational background in influencing trainee performance, a factor not well explored in the literature. The results indicate that providing optional scaffolding support and detailed explanations for in-game activities is crucial, as this approach avoids the expertise reversal effect and helps manage trainees' cognitive load. This study also demonstrated the feasibility of designing and implementing DGBL as an instructional tool for professional training. The above findings inform the development of effective DfS training and contribute to the wider implementation of DfS in construction industry around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the effects of annotation on abstract and concrete visual representations in science education. Two studies were conducted: Study 1 investigated the interaction between annotation and visual representations. The results of this study demonstrated that in science learning, annotation with abstract visual representations was superior to annotation with concrete visual representations. Study 2 tested the expertise reversal effect in a three-factor design where the interaction among annotation, visual representation, and prior knowledge was measured. The findings showed that high-prior-knowledge learners performed better in the annotation-abstract visual condition than in the annotation-concrete visual condition where low-prior-knowledge learners showed the opposite outcome—confirming that the expertise reversal effect is at play in how science learners utilize visual information. The study has clarified the roles of prior knowledge, visual representation, and instructional strategy on learner cognitive processing in science education. This knowledge should prove useful for educators as they engage in the design and development of computer-based science learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The eye-tracking technology was used in this study to investigate the effects of embedded questions and feedback in instructional videos on learning performance and attention allocation and whether an expertise reversal effect existed. The experiment involved 49 learners with high-level prior knowledge and 45 ones with low-level prior knowledge from a university. Meanwhile, they learned instructional videos with no embedded feedback, embedded questions without feedback and embedded questions with feedback. Findings from the experiment showed that the instructional videos with embedded questions but without feedback not only improved the participants’ attention but also enhanced their learning performance. Furthermore, there was an expertise reversal effect on the learning performance whereby instructional videos with embedded questions but without feedback improved the learning performance of learners with low-level prior knowledge, but not those with high-level prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the application of the meshing hypothesis to learning styles during pharmacy student experiential rotations. Topics discussed include the definition of learning styles, development of a pharmacy-specific questionnaire for assessing learners by their preferred learning style, and Universal Design for Learning principles.

In multimedia learning, graphs are seen as just one specific instance of pictorial representations requiring the same cognitive processes as realistic depictions. Accordingly, learning from text‐graph combinations should also benefit from the same instructional support such as signaling of text‐picture correspondences depending on learners' prior knowledge. We investigated whether this expertise reversal of the signaling effect could be replicated for text‐graph combinations. Students (N = 101) with different prior knowledge levels learned with text‐graph combinations that were either enhanced with signals or not. Results indicate an expertise reversal effect on learning outcomes. A moderated mediation analysis of students' visual attention showed that this pattern could be explained by the fact that students with low prior knowledge (LPK) fixated the graph information earlier, whereas high prior knowledge students fixated the graph later when signals were present. Our results suggest that instructional support should be adapted to students' prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Guided by cognitive load theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the purpose of this study was to evaluate players' ability to integrate dynamic information presented under different conditions: a verbal condition, in which instructions were given orally; a visual condition, in which instructions were shown using arrow symbols; and a redundant condition, in which both visual and verbal instructions were presented simultaneously. Method: In a 2 × 3 design, we asked basketball players with varied levels of skill (less-skilled, skilled) to rate their invested mental effort and to perform a recall test after learning from either the verbal, visual or redundant condition. Results: Results demonstrated that the less-skilled players benefited more from the redundant condition, whereas the skilled participants benefited more from the visual condition. Conclusion: Recommendations for improving instructional design techniques aimed at the transmission of tactical instructions in team games are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of productive failure posits that a problem-solving phase prior to explicit instruction is more effective than explicit instruction followed by problem-solving. This prediction was tested with Year 5 primary school students learning about light energy efficiency. Two, fully randomised, controlled experiments were conducted. In the first experiment (N = 64), explicit instruction followed by problem-solving was found to be superior to the reverse order for performance on problems similar to those used during instruction, with no difference on transfer problems. In the second experiment, where element interactivity was increased (N = 71), explicit instruction followed by problem-solving was found to be superior to the reverse order for performance on both similar and transfer problems. The contradictory predictions and results of a productive failure approach and cognitive load theory are discussed using the concept of element interactivity. Specifically, for learning where element interactivity is high, explicit instruction should precede problem-solving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to shed light on the cognitive processes underlying the expertise reversal effect related to multimedia signaling. Multimedia signals highlight correspondences between text and pictures, which is supposed to support text-picture integration and thus learning from multimedia. Previous research suggests that learners' prior knowledge moderates the multimedia signaling effect in that they only aid learners with low prior knowledge (LPK). We conducted an eye tracking study with students in secondary education who learned with a digital textbook in one of the two versions: (a) a basic version with mostly text signals only (e.g., bold face), or (b) an extended version with additional multimedia signals that aimed at supporting text-picture integration (e.g., color coding of corresponding text and picture elements). In addition to learning outcomes, we assessed students' cognitive load and gaze behavior as process measures. Results revealed that only LPK learners were supported in learning whereas HPK learners were not affected by multimedia signals (partial expertise reversal). A moderated mediation analysis revealed that multimedia signals affected gaze behavior of LPK students in that they looked earlier at pictures. For high prior knowledge students multimedia signals lead to a higher subjective germane cognitive load. Thus, multimedia signals affected processing of materials. However, the process measures did not explain the expertise reversal of the signaling effect regarding learning outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on cognitive load theory, this paper reports on two experiments investigating the variability effect that occurs when learners' exposure to highly variable tasks results in superior test performance. It was hypothesised that the effect was more likely to occur using high rather than low levels of guidance and testing more knowledgeable than less knowledgeable learners. Experiment 1, which tested 103 adults studying pre-university mathematics, showed no interaction between levels of variability (high vs. low) and levels of instructional guidance (worked examples vs. unguided problem solving). The significant main effect of variability indicated a variability effect regardless of levels of instructional guidance. Experiment 2, which tested another group of 56 adults enrolled in the same mathematics program, showed an interaction between levels of variability (high vs. low) and levels of learner expertise (novices vs. experts). More experienced learners learned more from high rather than low variability tasks demonstrating the variability effect, while less experienced learners learned more from low rather than high variability tasks demonstrating a reverse variability effect. It was suggested that more experienced learners had sufficient available working memory capacity to process high variability information while less experienced learners were overwhelmed by high variability and learned more using low variability information. Subjective ratings of difficulty supported the assumptions based on cognitive load theory. The major educational implication is that learners should initially be presented with low variability or easier tasks, and as they gain more experience in the task domain, variability or task difficulty should increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expertise reversal effect occurs when instruction that is effective for novice learners is ineffective or even counterproductive for more expert learners. Four experiments designed to explore the expertise reversal effect in the field of teaching and learning foreign language listening skills were conducted. Three instructional formats (read-only, listen-only, and read-and-listen) were designed to teach native Chinese students English (experiments 1-3) or French (experiment 4) listening skills. Experiment 1 found a significant interaction with no effect for learners with lower levels of listening expertise but a significant effect for learners with higher levels of listening expertise favoring the read-only approach. The results of experiment 2 replicated the counterintuitive findings of experiment 1. Experiment 3 testing less knowledgeable students than experiments 1 and 2 indicated that the read-and-listen condition was more effective for novice learners. Experiment 4 testing beginner-level learners of French as a foreign language obtained results consistent with those of experiment 3 in that lower expertise learners gained greater benefits from the read-and-listen than the read-only or listen-only teaching approaches. It is concluded that the read-and-listen approach benefitted novice learners but more expert learners could benefit more from the read-only approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multimedia integration signals highlight correspondences between text and pictures with the aim of supporting learning from multimedia. A recent meta-analysis revealed that only learners with low domain-specific prior knowledge benefit from multimedia integration signals. To more thoroughly investigate the influence of prior knowledge on the multimedia signaling effect in a more ecologically valid context, we conducted a quasi-experimental field study with 8th graders. They learned with a digital multimedia textbook in 1 of the 2 versions: (a) a basic version with signals that supported only the selection and organization of information from either text or pictures or (b) an extended version with additional multimedia integration signals to support the integration of information from text and pictures (e.g., color coding, deictic references). Results of a contrast analysis revealed that low-prior-knowledge learners learned better with the extended version compared with the basic version, whereas adding multimedia integration signals was detrimental for learning outcomes of high-prior-knowledge learners. This expertise reversal effect could only partially be explained by cognitive load measures, in that high-prior-knowledge learners had higher extraneous cognitive load in the condition with multimedia integration signals. The results suggest a need for a more individualized multimedia design that considers students' prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study investigated how the frequency and level of assistance provided to students interacted with prior knowledge to affect learning in the Voyage to Galapagos ( VTG) science inquiry-learning environment. VTG provides students with the opportunity to do simulated science field work in Galapagos as they investigate the key biology principles of variation, biological function, and natural selection. Thirteen teachers used the VTG module during their Natural Selection and Evolution curriculum unit. Students ( N = 1728) were randomly assigned to one of four assistance conditions (Minimal-, Medium-, Medium-High, or High-Assistance). We predicted we would find an 'Expertise Reversal Effect' (Kalyuga et al. in Edu Psychol Rev 194:509-539, 2007), whereby students with little prior knowledge benefit from assistance and students with higher prior knowledge benefit from minimal assistance. However, initial analyses revealed no interaction between prior knowledge and condition on student learning. To further explore results, we grouped students into 5 clusters based on student behaviors recorded during the use of VTG. The effect of assistance conditions within these clusters showed that, in two of the five clusters, results were consistent with the Expertise Reversal Effect. However, in two other clusters, the effect was reversed such that students with low prior knowledge benefited from lower amounts of assistance and vice versa. Though this study has not identified which specific characteristics determine optimal assistance levels, it suggests that prior knowledge is not sufficient for determining when students will differentially benefit from assistance. We propose that other factors such as self-regulated learning should be investigated in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Audible self-talk usage predicts improvement in visual-spatial memory performance. • Link between private speech usage and performance is invariant across baseline. • Labeling stimuli dominates adults' private speech content in a card-matching task. This study used a card-matching game that relies on visual-spatial working memory to investigate whether the amount one talks out loud to themselves (referred to as private speech) predicts cognitive performance in young adults (n = 118, mean age = 20.13 years). Each participant's performance was measured in two "Private Speech" trials, in which they were instructed to complete the game efficiently, while using private speech as much as they can. Using multilevel modeling, we found that participants performed significantly better on trials for which they produced more private speech. This relationship was not moderated by baseline competency on the task (measured in a condition where participants were not instructed to use, and rarely ever used, private speech). The study shows that the degree to which adults use private speech — when instructed to do so, is associated with cognitive performance, which may have important implications for educational/instructional settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The history of technological innovations in education has many examples of failed high expectations. To avoid becoming another one, current multimedia ICT tools need to be designed in accordance with how the human mind works. There are well established characteristics of its architecture that should be taken into account when evaluating, selecting, and using educational technology. This paper starts with a review of the most important features of human cognitive architecture and their implications for ICT-based learning. Expertise reversal effect relates to the interactions between levels of learner prior knowledge and effectiveness of different instructional techniques and procedures. Designs and techniques that are effective with low-knowledge learners can lose their effectiveness and even have negative consequences for more proficient learners. The paper describes recent empirical findings associated with the expertise reversal effect in multimedia and hypermedia learning environments, their interpretation within a cognitive load framework, and implications for the design of learner-tailored multimedia.

In the traditional framework of cognitive load theory, it is assumed that the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge structures (or schemas) is the only instructional goal, and therefore, the theory is applicable to any instructional task. Accordingly, the basic concepts of intrinsic (productive) and extraneous (unproductive) types of cognitive load were defined based on the relevance (or irrelevance) of the corresponding cognitive processes that impose the load to achieving this universal instructional goal, and the instructional methods advocated by this theory are aimed at enhancing the acquisition of domain-specific schemas. The paper suggests considering this goal within the whole variety of possible specific goals of different learner activities that could be involved in complex learning. This would result in narrowing down of boundaries of cognitive load theory and have implications for distinguishing types of cognitive load, sequencing different goals and instructional tasks, considering the role of learner expertise, and other aspects of complex learning. One of the consequences of this reconceptualization is abandoning the rigid explicit instruction versus minimal guidance dichotomy and replacing it with a more flexible approach based on differentiating specific goals of various learner activities in complex learning. In particular, it may allow reconciling seemingly contradictory results from studies of the effectiveness of worked examples in cognitive load theory (supporting the initial fully guided explicit instruction for novice learners) and studies within the frameworks of productive failure and invention learning that have reportedly demonstrated that minimally guided tasks provided prior to explicit instruction might benefit novice learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Element interactivity is a central concept of cognitive load theory that defines the complexity of a learning task. The reduction of task complexity through a temporary segmentation or isolation of interacting elements was investigated with 104 students randomly assigned to an interacting elements group, where participants were required to deal with complex accounting problems in their entirety, or an isolated elements group, where the task was broken down into constituent components. The results provide strong support for the expertise reversal effect with isolated elements beneficial for novices, while interacting elements were appropriate for more knowledgeable learners. Critically, these results only were obtained for high rather than low element interactivity materials. It was concluded that segmentation or element isolation should consider the expertise of the learner in conjunction with the complexity of the learning material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to examine the effects of sequencing instructional materials and learners' prior knowledge on learning ESL (English as a second language) through an online learning course. 121 fifth-grade students from an elementary school in Korea participated in the study. Each participant was allocated to one cell of a 2 × 2 between-subjects factorial design, with an instructional format (i.e. sequential or concurrent) as a first factor, and prior knowledge (i.e. high or low) as a second factor. Instructions of the words and grammar rules were allocated to each page for the sequential group, whereas integrated on a single page for the concurrent group. The result indicates that the sequential instruction of words followed by grammar explanations was more effective for the students with higher levels of prior knowledge than the concurrent presentation. The reverse was also found for the students with lower levels of prior knowledge in English. There are four possible explanations for the results. First, split-attention effect, temporal-contiguity effect, or transient information effect might occur. Second, worked-example effect might occur and over-ride the effect of sequencing. Third, intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load might intertwine each other. Last, the levels of element interactivity in two instructional formats might be different from each other. The implications for instructional designers and future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Tailoring of instructional methods to learner levels of expertise may reduce extraneous cognitive load and improve learning. Contemporary technology-based learning environments have the potential to substantially enable learner-adapted instruction. This paper investigates the effects of adaptive instruction based on using the isolated-interactive elements effect that occurs when learners who are initially presented with elements of information in an isolated, non-interactive form (followed by a fully interactive form) outperform those who are presented with the same information only in a fully interactive form. Cognitive load theory explains the effect for novice learners by their potential cognitive overload when dealing with a fully interactive form of instruction from the beginning. However, according to the expertise reversal effect in cognitive load theory, the effect may reverse for relatively more knowledgeable learners. Experiment 1 found that more knowledgeable accounting students performed better with interactive rather than isolated presentations. For less knowledgeable learners, there was no statistically significant performance difference between the presentation formats. Thus, there was a significant interaction between the instructional procedures and levels of learner prior knowledge as an indicator of an expertise reversal effect. In one of the two conditions used in Experiment 2, information was adaptively presented in isolated form to less knowledgeable learners but in interactive form to more knowledgeable learners (based on the pre-tests of learner prior knowledge). In another (control) group, students were randomly allocated to isolated and interactive instructional formats irrespective of levels of their prior knowledge. As expected, the adaptive instruction group was superior to the non-adaptive group. The paper concludes with implications for the technology enabled design of learner-tailored instructional presentations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on cognitive load theory, the effect of different levels of instructional detail and expertise in a simulation-based environment on learning about concepts of correlation was investigated. Separate versions of the learning environment were designed for the four experimental conditions which differed only with regard to the levels of written instructional detail. One hundred and forty Grade 10 (lower-expertise) and Grade 11 (higher-expertise) students participated in this experiment. In accord with the expertise reversal effect, the results supported the hypothesis that higher levels of instructional detail benefited learning for lower-expertise learners, whereas lower levels of detail facilitated learning for higher-expertise learners. It was concluded that the level of instructional guidance needed to match learners' levels of expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of experience and presentation format on memorization processes in 24 experienced and 24 beginner soccer players, using a 2 x 3 factorial design 'Expertise' (Beginner vs. Experienced player) and 'Presentation Format' (Static, Dynamic, Combined). Factors were tested at 3 moments (immediate test, study phase and delayed recall accuracy) by asking the subjects to reproduce the positions of players relative to the ball and to each other. The main results confirmed expertise reversal effect for the immediate test and study phase. However the expertise reversal effect disappeared in the delayed recall accuracy test in the dynamic and static formats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of instructional fading on student performance in online accounting instruction using completion problems was investigated in this study. Instructional fading, defined as the gradual decreasing of prompts or cues, was used as a strategy to create germane cognitive load. The Instructional Fading Tool for Accounting Practice, a web-based application developed by the researchers, provided the instructional fading and sequencing of the information. The researchers created control and treatment groups based on low and high prior knowledge of accounting. Results indicated that the treatment group had a higher percentage of an increase in performance than the control group. In addition, students within the low-prior knowledge treatment group outperformed students in the other treatment group and two control groups. These findings suggest that using instructional fading along with completion problems in accounting instruction had a positive effect on performance especially for students with low levels of prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The worked example effect indicates that examples providing full guidance on how to solve a problem result in better test performance than a problem-solving condition with no guidance. The generation effect occurs when learners generating responses demonstrate better test performance than learners in a presentation condition that provides an answer. This contradiction may be resolved by the suggestion that the worked example effect occurs for complex, high-element interactivity materials that impose a heavy working memory load whereas the generation effect is applicable for low-element interactivity materials. Two experiments tested this hypothesis in the area of geometry instruction using students with different levels of prior knowledge in geometry. The results of Experiment 1 indicated a worked example effect obtained for materials high in element interactivity and a generation effect for materials low in element interactivity. As levels of expertise increased in Experiment 2, thus reducing effective complexity, this interaction was replaced by a generation effect for all materials. These results suggest that when students need to learn low-element interactivity material, learning will be enhanced if they generate rather than study responses but if students need to learn high-element interactivity material, study may be preferable to generating responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has demonstrated that instruction that relies heavily on studying worked examples is more effective for less experienced learners compared to instruction emphasizing problem solving. However, the guidance associated with studying some worked examples may reduce the performance of more experienced learners. This study investigated categories of guidance using geometry worked examples. Three conditions were used. In the theorem and step guidance condition, students were provided with the solution steps required to reach the answer and the theorems used to justify the steps. In the step guidance condition, learners were only provided with the sequence of steps needed to reach the answer but not with the theorems explaining the steps. The problem-solving condition required learners to solve problems without any guidance. It was hypothesized that for students who had already learned the relevant theorems, the major task was to learn to recognize problem states and their associated solution moves. The step guidance condition should best facilitate such knowledge, compared to a problem-solving or a theorem and step guidance approach. For students who had not yet fully learned the theorems, the theorem and step guidance approach should be superior. Two geometry instruction experiments supported these hypotheses. Information concerning theorems should only be provided if students have yet to learn and automate theorem schemas. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Providing prompts to induce focused processing of the central contents of instructional explanations is a promising instructional means to support novice learners in learning from instructional explanations. However, within research on the expertise reversal effect it has been shown that instructional means that are beneficial for novices can be detrimental for learners with more expertise if the instructional means provide guidance that overlaps with the internal guidance provided by the prior knowledge of learners with more expertise. Under such circumstances, prompts to induce focused processing might even be detrimental for learners with expertise whose prior knowledge already provides internal guidance to learn from explanations. On this basis, we aimed at experimentally varying expertise by developing prior knowledge. Specifically, we used a preparation intervention with contrasting cases to enhance learners' prior knowledge (expertise). Against this background, we tested 71 university students in a 2 × 2 factorial experimental design: (a) Factor of expertise. Working with contrasting cases to develop prior knowledge and expertise to provide internal guidance to learn from instructional explanations (with vs. without), (b) Factor of prompts. Prompts to induce focused processing of the explanations (with vs. without). The results showed that prompts to induce focused processing fostered conceptual knowledge for novice learners whereas prompts hindered the acquisition of conceptual knowledge for learners with expertise that was developed by working with contrasting cases beforehand. Moreover, measures of subjective cognitive load and learning processes suggest that the instructional guidance provided by prompts compensated for the low internal guidance of novice learners and overlapped with the internal guidance of learners with expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The illusion of understanding hypothesis asserts that, when people are learning with multimedia presentations, the addition of animation can affect metacognitive monitoring such that they perceive the presentation to be easier to understand and develop more optimistic metacomprehension. As a result, learners invest less cognitive effort when learning with animation. This study tested the illusion of understanding hypothesis with a randomized, double-blind, 2X2 factorial design using two different types of animation--representational and directive. Representational animation had a negative effect on learning, and directive animation had a positive effect. Both representational and directive animations induced illusion of understanding. Moreover, the animations induced multiple forms of the illusion. Consistent with expertise reversal effect, the animations induced more optimistic metacomprehension in low-proficiency learners but more pessimistic metacomprehension in high-proficiency learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the effectiveness of causal words embedded in Chinese texts to explicitly indicate causal links between the described events. Primary school students with different levels of reading expertise participated in the experiment that compared an embedded casual-words format with the original no-causal-words format. An interaction (expertise reversal) effect was obtained with the causal-words format benefiting novices but not more experienced readers. In contrast to previous studies of the expertise reversal effect that have related the effect to the variations in extraneous cognitive load caused by experts processing redundant for them information, this instance of the effect is likely to be due to differential levels of intrinsic cognitive load. The results of the reported experiment imply the use of different text formats for individuals with different levels of reading expertise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expertise reversal effect occurs when learner's expertise moderates design principles derived from cognitive load theory. Although this effect is supported by numerous empirical studies, indicating an overall large effect size, the effect was never tested by inducing expertise experimentally and using instructional explanations in a computer-based environment. The present experiment used an illustrated introductory text and a computer program about statistical data analyses with 93 students. Retention and transfer tests were employed as dependent measures. Each learner was randomly assigned to one condition of a 2 × 2 between subjects factorial design with the two factors expertise (novices vs. 'experts') and explanations (with vs. without). Expertise was induced by adding expository examples and illustrations to the introductory text to enhance text coherence and facilitate text comprehension. The expertise reversal effect was replicated for the dependent measure transfer, but not for retention. Results and implications for adaptive learning environments are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning with instructional animations may overstretch limited working memory resources due to intense processing demands associated with transient information. The authors investigated whether explicit instructional advice coupled with a taskspecific learner control mechanism (such as a timeline scrollbar) could facilitate the successful self-management of transient information. The effectiveness of a timeline scrollbar that allowed self-pacing and self-sequencing of animations was compared with computer-controlled animations. Experiment 1 demonstrated that a timeline scrollbar (with instructional advice on its strategic use) enhanced the retention of stroke sequences in writing Chinese characters. In Experiment 2, a timeline scrollbar was used in an integrated set of narrated animations dealing with complex scientific information. Retention and comprehension post-tests indicated that although a scrollbar accompanied by instructional advice in its use assisted novice learners, no such effect was found with participants who possessed higher levels of prior knowledge. The findings have implications for the formulation of criteria for the effective incorporation of learner control into the design of instructional animations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Providing exploratory activities prior to explicit instruction can facilitate learning. However, the level of guidance provided during the exploration has largely gone unstudied. In this study, we examined the effects of 1 form of guidance, feedback, during exploratory mathematics problem solving for children with varying levels of prior domain knowledge. In 2 experiments, 2nd- and 3rd-grade children solved 12 novel mathematical equivalence problems and then received brief conceptual instruction. After solving each problem, they received (a) no feedback, (b) outcome feedback, or (c) strategy feedback. In both experiments, prior knowledge moderated the impact of feedback on children's learning. Children with little prior knowledge of correct solution strategies benefited from feedback during exploration, but children with some prior knowledge of a correct solution strategy benefited more from exploring without feedback. These results suggest that theories of learning need to incorporate the role of prior knowledge and that providing feedback may not always be optimal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of four instructional methods on cognitive load, propositional knowledge, and conceptual understanding of statistics, for low prior knowledge students and for high prior knowledge students. The instructional methods were (1) a reading-only control condition, (2) answering open-ended questions, (3) answering open-ended questions and formulating arguments, and (4) studying worked-out examples of the type of arguments students in the third group had to formulate themselves. The results indicate that high prior knowledge students develop more propositional knowledge of statistics than low prior knowledge students. With regard to conceptual understanding, the results indicate an expertise reversal effect: low prior knowledge students learn most from studying worked-out examples, whereas high prior knowledge students profit most from formulating arguments. Thus, novice students should be guided into the subject matter by means of worked-out examples. As soon as students have developed more knowledge of the subject matter, they should be provided with learning tasks that stimulate students to solve problems by formulating arguments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been several rather counterintuitive phenomena observed in different fields of research that compared the performance of experts and novices. For example, studies of medical expertise demonstrated that less experienced medical students may in some situations outperform seasoned medical practitioners on recall of specific cases. Studies of cognitive load aspects of complex skill acquisition in technical and academic domains demonstrated that more experienced technical trainees or students may learn less than expected from instructions that are very effective for novices. Finally, research in the execution of movements in sports showed that, while novice players performed well under skill-focused and accuracy conditions, such conditions inhibited performance of experts who benefitted from speed conditions. Apparently, in each of those phenomena, there is a mechanism that disrupted successful expert performance while, at the same time, enhanced performance of less experienced individuals. This paper presents a review of the expertise reversal effects that have been found in the different fields and identifies their specific underlying mechanisms and common origins. Knowledge of theoretical models and empirical findings in one of those fields could enrich research ideas and approaches in others. The implications of these ideas for research aimed at improving learning and instruction are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goals of this study were to investigate the timing and the mechanism by which two types of model-centered instruction (MCI)-expert modeling (EM) and self-guided modeling (SGM)-might be made increasingly effective, efficient, and engaging for learners with different levels of expertise. The 62 pre-service and in-service evaluators who participated in the study were randomly assigned to one of these two types of MCI. The participants in the EM group were provided with the conceptual models used by experts to solve ethical conflicts within program evaluation. The participants in SGM group received no guidance in developing their own mental models. Regarding instructional effectiveness measures, there were no significant differences between the two types of MCI. However, inexperienced learners in the EM group invested less instructional effort and time than did those in the SGM group. In addition, inexperienced learners in the EM group also exhibited more engagement than did those in the SGM group. Therefore, EM is likely to be the more appropriate instructional design for inexperienced learners. Expert modeling required experienced learners to invest more mental effort, because if the conceptual model of the expert was redundant, it required them to integrate the previous schema with resulting overload of their working memory. Regardless of the types of MCI employed, the inexperienced participants showed significantly higher levels of attention and satisfaction than did the experienced participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments using the science topics of Magnetism and Light were conducted with younger learners (Year 5) who had no prior knowledge of the topics, and older learners (Year 6) who had studied the topics previously. Half of the learners were presented the information in auditory form only while the other half were presented the auditory information simultaneously with a visual presentation. Results indicated that older students with prior knowledge of the topic learned more from the auditory only presentation. For these students, the addition of visual information was redundant and so they were disadvantaged by the use of an audio-visual presentation. However, for younger students with no prior knowledge of the topic, the difference between means reversed. Some of these students might require a visual presentation to make sense of the auditory explanation. These two sets of results were discussed in the context of the redundancy and the expertise reversal effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although exploratory (inquiry-based, discovery, problem-based) learning environments have been effective for certain categories of learners and instructional situations, they could also be very cognitively demanding, especially for novice learners. Such forms of instruction may generate a heavy working memory load caused by intensive unguided search processes and result in reduced learning outcomes for these learners. This paper considers this situation as an example of the expertise reversal effect in cognitive load theory. It reviews relevant previous studies within this theoretical framework that compared exploratory and direct forms of instruction with learners at different levels of prior knowledge. Even though most of these studies have been conducted in well-defined areas, a of some recent studies in ill-defined domains is also provided. Implications for the design of learning environments with learner-tailored levels of instructional guidance are discussed in the concluding sections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Many animations impose a high cognitive load due to the transience of information, which often hampers learning. Segmentation, that is presenting animations in pieces (i.e., segments), has been proposed as a means to reduce this high cognitive load. The expertise reversal effect shows, however, that design measures that have a positive effect on cognitive load and learning for students with lower levels of prior knowledge, might not be effective, or might even have a negative effect on cognitive load and learning for students with higher levels of prior knowledge. This experiment with animated worked-out examples showed an expertise reversal effect of segmentation: segmented animations were more efficient than continuous animations (i.e., equal test performance with lower investment of mental effort during learning) for students with lower levels of prior knowledge, but not for students with higher levels of prior knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The reported study is aimed at developing effective techniques for reducing learner cognitive overload while using pinyin (a phonetic system) to learn the Chinese language. According to the multimedia redundancy effect, commonly used concurrent visual presentations of characters and pinyin, as well as their auditory pronunciations might impose an unnecessary extraneous load on learners and thus eliminate any potential benefits of using pinyin. In this study, learning effects of three computer-based presentation techniques (full on-screen pinyin transcription, partial on-screen pinyin transcription, and no on-screen pinyin) were compared for learners with higher and lower levels of prior language proficiency and pinyin knowledge. Results demonstrated the superiority of the partial pinyin condition over the two other conditions for more experienced learners. No differences between the three experimental groups were found for learners with lower levels of prior knowledge. The effectiveness of different pinyin presentation techniques depended on levels of learner prior knowledge (an expertise reversal effect). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Self-explanation prompts are considered to be an important form of scaffolding in the comprehension of complex multimedia materials. However, there is little theoretical understanding to date of self-explaining prompt formats tailored to different expertise levels of learners to help them fully exploit the advantages of dynamic multi-representational materials. To address this issue, this study designed two types of self-explaining prompts: the reasoning-based prompts asked the learners to reason the action run of the animation; the predicting-based prompts asked the learners to predict the upcoming action of the animation, and then asked for reasoning if they made a wrong prediction. Furthermore, multiple indicators including learning outcome, cognitive load demand, learning time, and learning efficiency were used to interpret the prompts’ effects on different expertise levels of learners. A total of 244 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions: a control and two different self-explaining prompt conditions. The results indicate that the learning effects of self-explaining prompts depend on levels of learner expertise. Based on the results, this study makes recommendations for adaptive self-explaining prompt design. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Prior research has shown that tutored problem solving with intelligent software tutors is an effective instructional method, and that worked examples are an effective complement to this kind of tutored problem solving. The work on the expertise reversal effect suggests that it is desirable to tailor the fading of worked examples to individual students’ growing expertise levels. One lab and one classroom experiment were conducted to investigate whether adaptively fading worked examples in a tutored problem-solving environment can lead to higher learning gains. Both studies compared a standard Cognitive Tutor with two example-enhanced versions, in which the fading of worked examples occurred either in a fixed manner or in a manner adaptive to individual students’ understanding of the examples. Both experiments provide evidence of improved learning results from adaptive fading over fixed fading over problem solving. We discuss how to further optimize the fading procedure matching each individual student’s changing knowledge level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated interactions between the isolated–interactive elements effect and levels of learner expertise with first year undergraduate university accounting students. The isolated–interactive elements effect occurs when learning is facilitated by initially presenting elements of information sequentially in an isolated form rather than in a fully interactive form. The expertise reversal effect occurs when the relevant advantage of one instructional technique over another reverses depending on the learner’s level of expertise. The results provided support for the predicted interaction with lower expertise students benefitting from the isolated elements instructional method, while students with more expertise learned more from the interacting elements format. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reported study compared the instructional effectiveness of Modern English explanatory interpretations of Shakespearean play extracts integrated line by line into original Elizabethan English text, with a conventional unguided original text condition. Experiment 1 demonstrated that the explanatory notes group reported a lower cognitive load and performed better in a comprehension test than the control group when students had no prior knowledge of the text. In Experiment 2, a reverse effect occurred when the same material was presented to a group of Shakespearean experts. Experiment 3 replicated the results of Experiment 1 using a different Shakespearean play. The study demonstrated that the relative effectiveness of instructional conditions depended on learner levels of expertise. In accordance with the expertise reversal effect, the benefits of guided instruction reversed and became detrimental for learners with high prior knowledge levels. Retrospective verbal protocols indicated that the explanations were redundant for expert readers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]