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This scoping review presents an overview of physical fitness parameters in rhythmic gymnastics as well as the association of fitness with gymnasts' performance, competitive level, and age. PubMed, Scopus, and Sport Discus databases were searched. Of the 586 records retrieved, 41 studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 1915 participants). The included studies examined flexibility, aerobic capacity, muscle power, muscle endurance, muscle strength, sprint speed, agility, balance, and coordination. Performance was associated with flexibility, aerobic capacity, lower-limb muscle power, agility, muscular endurance, balance, and coordination from a young age. Flexibility, aerobic capacity, and muscle power were, in general, higher in high-level gymnasts than in low-level gymnasts or controls. Older rhythmic gymnasts demonstrated higher scores than the younger ones in flexibility, aerobic capacity, balance, and sport-specific coordination but not in muscle endurance, while some studies reported a decline in muscle power with age. Supplementary physical fitness training improved all physical abilities irrespective of the gymnasts' level. Rhythmic gymnastics training alone improved muscle power, agility, speed, muscular endurance, and balance to a lesser extent than targeted fitness training. Muscular strength, speed, and agility are largely under-researched in rhythmic gymnastics. Emphasis should be given to targeted strength and power training due to the high mechanical loads placed on skeletally immature athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Long-term stretching of human skeletal muscles increases joint range of motion through altered stretch perception and decreased resistance to stretch. There is also some evidence that stretching induces changes in muscle morphology. However, research is limited and inconclusive. Objective: To examine the effect of static stretching training on muscle architecture (i.e., fascicle length and fascicle angle, muscle thickness and cross-sectional area) in healthy participants. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: PubMed Central, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus were searched. Randomized controlled trials and controlled trials without randomization were included. No restrictions on language or date of publication were applied. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane RoB2 and ROBINS-I tools. Subgroup analyses and random-effects meta-regressions were also performed using total stretching volume and intensity as covariates. Quality of evidence was determined by GRADE analysis. Results: From the 2946 records retrieved, 19 studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis (n = 467 participants). Risk of bias was low in 83.9% of all criteria. Confidence in cumulative evidence was high. Stretching training induces trivial increases in fascicle length at rest (SMD = 0.17; 95% CI 0.01–0.33; p = 0.042) and small increases in fascicle length during stretching (SMD = 0.39; 95% CI 0.05 to 0.74; p = 0.026). No increases were observed in fascicle angle or muscle thickness (p = 0.30 and p = 0.18, respectively). Subgroup analyses showed that fascicle length increased when high stretching volumes were used (p < 0.004), while no changes were found for low stretching volumes (p = 0.60; subgroup difference: p = 0.025). High stretching intensities induced fascicle length increases (p < 0.006), while low stretching intensities did not have an effect (p = 0.72; subgroup difference: p = 0.042). Also, high intensity stretching resulted in increased muscle thickness (p = 0.021). Meta-regression analyses showed that longitudinal fascicle growth was positively associated with stretching volume (p < 0.02) and intensity (p < 0.04). Conclusions: Static stretching training increases fascicle length at rest and during stretching in healthy participants. High, but not low, stretching volumes and intensities induce longitudinal fascicle growth, while high stretching intensities result in increased muscle thickness. Registration: PROSPERO, registration number: CRD42021289884. Key Points: Static stretching training induces trivial increases in fascicle length at rest and small increases in fascicle length during stretching. High, but not low, stretching volumes and intensities induce longitudinal fascicle growth. High stretching intensities result in increased muscle thickness. Fascicle angle remains unaffected by static stretching training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the acute and long-term effects of two static stretching protocols of equal duration, performed either as a single stretch or multiple shorter duration repetitions on hip hyperextension range of motion (ROM) and single leg countermovement jump height (CMJ). Thirty female gymnasts were randomly assigned to stretching (SG) or control groups (CG). The SG performed two different protocols of static stretching, three times per week for 9 weeks. One leg performed repeated stretching (3 x 30 s with 30 s rest) while the other leg performed a single stretch (90 s). The CG continued regular training. ROM and CMJ were measured pre- and 2 min post-stretching on weeks 0, 3, 6, 9, and 3 weeks into detraining. CMJ height increased over time irrespective of group (main effect time, p = 0.001), with no statistical difference between groups (main effect group, p = 0.272). Three-way ANOVA showed that, CMJ height after stretching was not affected by either stretching protocol at any time point (p = 0.503 to 0.996). Both stretching protocols equally increased ROM on weeks 6 (10.9 ± 13.4%, p < 0.001, d = 0.42), and 9 (21.5 ± 13.4%, p < 0.001, d = 0.78), and this increase was maintained during detraining (17.0 ± 15.0%, p < 0.001, d = 0.68). No increase in ROM was observed in the CG (p > 0.874). Static stretching of long duration applied either as single or multiple bouts of equal duration, results in similar acute and long-term improvements in ROM. Furthermore, both stretching protocols do not acutely affect subsequent CMJ performance, and this effect is not influenced by the large increase in ROM and CMJ overtime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effects of high-volume static stretching training on gastrocnemius muscle architecture, ankle angle and jump height in 21 female adolescent volleyball players. Static stretching of the plantar flexors of one leg (STR) was performed five times/week for 12 weeks, in addition to volleyball training, with the contra-lateral leg used as control (CON). Total duration of stretching per session increased from 540 s (week 1) to 900 s (week 12). At baseline, week 12 and after 3 weeks of detraining, muscle architecture at the middle and the distal part of both gastrocnemius heads (medialis and lateralis) and ankle angle were examined at rest and at maximum dorsiflexion. At the same time-points gastrocnemius cross-sectional area (CSA) was also assessed, while jumping height was measured at baseline and week 12. Following intervention, ankle dorsiflexion increased in both legs with a greater increase in STR than CON (22 ± 20% vs. 8 ± 17%, p < 0.001). Fascicle length at the middle part of gastrocnemius medialis increased only in the STR, at rest (6 ± 7%, p = 0.006) and at maximum dorsiflexion (11 ± 7%, p < 0.001). Fascicle length at maximum dorsiflexion also increased at the distal part of gastrocnemius lateralis of STR (15 ± 13%, p < 0.001). A greater increase in CSA (23 ± 14% vs. 13 ± 14%, p < 0.001) and in one-leg jumping height (27 ± 30% vs. 17 ± 23%, p < 0.001) was found in STR than CON. Changes in ankle angle, fascicle length and CSA were maintained following detraining. High-volume stretching training for 12 weeks results in ankle dorsiflexion, fascicle length and muscle cross sectional area increases in adolescent female volleyball players. These adaptations may partly explain improvements in jump performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The association between force–time characteristics of isometric leg press (ILP) and countermovement jump (CMJ) with vastus lateralis (VL) muscle architecture, was examined in 19 female athletes (aged 23.2 ± 5.4 years). Peak force (PF), average rate of force development (ARFD) and rate of force development (RFD) at different time epochs were calculated from the force–time curve, as well as CMJ jump height and power. Significant correlations were found between ILP-PF and CMJ power (r = 0.658, p < 0.01), while both variables were correlated with VL thickness and fascicle length (r = 0.471 to 0.648, p < 0.05). Significant correlations were also observed between ILP-RFD epochs and VL fascicle length (r = 0.565 to 0.646, p < 0.05) and between CMJ height with VL thickness (r = 0.523, p < 0.05). Furthermore, positive correlations were found between ILP and CMJ in ARFD (r = 0.625, p < 0.01) and RFD epochs (r = 0.464 to 0.566, p < 0.05). ILP-PF and muscle thickness accounted for 52.8% (p = 0.002) of the variance in CMJ power. These results suggest that isometric force time characteristics are associated with power generation during dynamic muscle actions. Furthermore, VL muscle thickness and fascicle length are associated with rapid force production in female athletes, irrespective of the type of muscle action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compared the acute and long-term effects of intermittent and continuous static stretching training on straight leg raise range of motion (ROM). Seventy-seven preadolescent female gymnasts were divided into a stretching (n = 57), and a control group (n = 20). The stretching group performed static stretching of the hip extensors of both legs, three times per week for 15 weeks. One leg performed intermittent (3 × 30 s with 30 s rest) while the other leg performed continuous stretching (90 s). ROM pre- and post-stretching was measured at baseline, on weeks 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and after 2 weeks of detraining. ROM was increased during both intermittent and continuous stretching training, but remained unchanged in the control group. Intermittent stretching conferred a larger improvement in ROM compared to both continuous stretching and control from week 3, until the end of training, and following detraining (p = 0.045 to 0.001 and d = 0.80 to 1.41). During detraining, ROM after the intermittent protocol decreased (p = 0.001), while it was maintained after the continuous protocol (p = 0.36). Acute increases in ROM following the intermittent stretching were also larger than in the continuous (p = 0.038). Intermittent stretching was more effective than continuous, for both long-term and acute ROM enhancement in preadolescent female athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined changes in countermovement jump (CMJ) height and hip and knee joint range of motion (ROM), after an acute bout of prolonged static stretching. Nineteen, female "Gymnastics for All" gymnasts (age: 9.8±0.5 years, training experience: 2.5±1.5 years, height: 135.0±7.3cm, body mass: 33.4±6.9 kg) performed 90s of quadriceps stretching. A single-leg stretching and jumping design was used, with the contra-lateral limb serving as control. One-leg CMJ performance for the stretched and the control leg and two-legs CMJ were measured after warm-up, and 2 min post-stretching. ROM of the stretched leg was measured before and after stretching. One-leg CMJ height remained unchanged for both the stretched (pre: 7.4±1.7, post: 6.9±1.8 cm) and the control leg (pre: 7.0±1.7, post: 6.7±2.1 cm), as shown by the lack of main effects for time (pre vs. post: p= 0.278), leg (stretched vs. non-stretched leg: p= 0.207), and interaction (p= 0.444). Two-legs CMJ also remained unchanged (pre: 16.9±3.1, post: 16.3±3.4 cm, p=0.186). Hip joint ROM increased after stretching (pre: 16.3±3.7, post: 18.2±4.2°, p=0.002), while knee joint ROM remained unchanged (pre: 26.6±2.7, post: 25.9±3.0°, p= 0.218). Prolonged static stretching increases ROM, but has no negative effect on CMJ performance in very young, flexibility-trained female gymnasts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Science of Gymnastics Journal is the property of Science of Gymnastics Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This study examined the association between physical fitness and a technical execution score in rhythmic gymnasts varying in the performance level. Forty-six young rhythmic gymnasts (age: 9.9 ±1.3 years) were divided into two groups (qualifiers, n=24 and non-qualifiers, n=22) based on the results of the National Championships. Gymnasts underwent a series of physical fitness tests and technical execution was evaluated in a routine without apparatus. There were significant differences between qualifiers and non-qualifiers in the technical execution score (p=0.01, d=1.0), shoulder flexion (p=0.01, d=0.8), straight leg raise (p=0.004, d=0.9), sideways leg extension (p=0.002, d=0.9) and body fat (p=.021, d=0.7), but no differences were found in muscular endurance and jumping performance. The technical execution score for the non-qualifiers was significantly correlated with shoulder extension (r=0.423, p<0.05), sideways leg extension (r=0.687, p<0.01), push ups (r=0.437, p<0.05) and body fat (r=0.642, p<0.01), while there was only one significant correlation with sideways leg extension (r=0.467, p<0.05) for the qualifiers. Multiple regression analysis revealed that sideways leg extension, body fat, and push ups accounted for a large part (62.9%) of the variance in the technical execution score for the non-qualifiers, while for the qualifiers, only 37.3% of the variance in the technical execution score was accounted for by sideways leg extension and spine flexibility. In conclusion, flexibility and body composition can effectively discriminate between qualifiers and non-qualifiers in youth rhythmic gymnastics. At the lower level of performance (non-qualifiers), physical fitness seems to have a greater effect on the technical execution score. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Science of Gymnastics Journal is the property of Science of Gymnastics Journal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Gastrocnemius medialis (GM) architecture and ankle angle were compared between flexibility trained (n = 10) and not trained (n = 6) female athletes, aged 8–10 years. Ankle angle, fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness were measured at the mid-belly and the distal part of GM, at rest and at the end of one min of static stretching. Flexibility trained (FT) and not trained athletes (FNT) had similar fascicle length at the medial (4.19 ± 0.37 vs. 4.24 ± 0.54 cm, respectively, p = 0.841) and the distal part of GM (4.25 ± 0.35 vs. 4.18 ± 0.65 cm, respectively, p = 0.780), similar pennation angles, and muscle thickness (p > 0.216), and larger ankle angle at rest (120.9 ± 4.2 vs. 110.9 ± 5.8°, respectively, p = 0.001). During stretching, FT displayed greater fascicle elongation compared to FNT at the medial (+1.67 ± 0.37 vs. +1.28 ± 0.22 cm, respectively, p = 0.048) and the distal part (+1.84 ± 0.67 vs. +0.97 ± 0.97 cm, respectively, p = 0.013), larger change in joint angle and muscle tendon junction displacement (MTJ) (p < 0.001). Muscle thickness was similar in both groups (p > 0.053). Ankle dorsiflexion angle significantly correlated with fascicle elongation at the distal part of GM (r = −0.638, p < 0.01) and MTJ displacement (r = −0.610, p < 0.05). Collectively, FT had greater fascicle elongation at the medial and distal part of GM and greater MTJ displacement during stretching than FNT of similar age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Τhis study examined changes in hip joint flexion angle after an intermittent or a continuous static stretching protocol of equal total duration. Twenty-seven female subjects aged 19.9 ± 3.0 years (14 artistic and rhythmic gymnasts and 13 team sports athletes), performed 3 min of intermittent (6 × 30 s with 30 s rest) or continuous static stretching (3 min) of the hip extensors, with an intensity of 80–90 on a 100-point visual analogue scale. The order of stretching was randomized and counterbalanced, and each subject performed both conditions. Hip flexion angle was measured with the straight leg raise test for both legs after warm-up and immediately after stretching. Both stretching types equally increased hip flexion angle by ~6% (continuous: 140.9° ± 20.4° to 148.6° ± 18.8°, p = 0.047; intermittent: 141.8° ± 20.3° to 150.0° ± 18.8°, p = 0.029) in artistic and rhythmic gymnasts. In contrast, in team sports athletes, only intermittent stretching increased hip flexion angle by 13% (from 91.0° ± 7.2° to 102.4° ± 14.5°, p = 0.001), while continuous stretching did not affect hip angle (from 92.4° ± 6.9° vs. 93.1° ± 9.2°, p = 0.99). The different effect of intermittent vs. continuous stretching on hip flexion between gymnasts and team sports athletes suggests that responses to static stretching are dependent on stretching mode and participants training experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study examined the effects of 8 weeks of plyometric training on jumping, sprinting, and change of direction (COD) performance. Methods: Fifty female 7–9-year-old gymnasts were randomly assigned to a plyometric training group (PG; n = 33), that performed supplementary plyometric training twice per week, and a control group (CG; n = 17) that continued regular training. The following tests were performed before and after the intervention: 10 and 20 m sprints, 5 + 5 m and 10 + 10 m COD tests, one-leg and two-leg countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump (DJ), squat jump (SJ), and standing long jump (SLJ). Results: Only a main effect for time was found for all jumping performance parameters (p = 0.001). However, the improvement of one- and two-leg CMJ in PG had a greater effect size than CG (0.72 and 0.67 vs. 0.34 and 0.18, respectively). Group × time interactions were found for 10 and 20 m sprint tests (p = 0.018 and p = 0.011, respectively) and for 10 + 10 m COD (p = 0.008) with the post hoc test showing improvement only for the PG (p = 0.001, 0.001, and 0.003 and d = 1.1, 1.14, and 0.6, respectively). Conclusions: Supplementary plyometric training increased sprint and COD performance more than regular gymnastics training, while jumping performance was equally improved in both groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]