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To assess the effects of an α 2 -adrenoceptor agonist (detomidine) constant rate infusion (CRI) with and without an α 2 -adrenoceptor antagonist (vatinoxan) CRI on blood insulin and glucose concentrations, heart rate, intestinal borborygmi, and sedation during and after infusion in horses. Randomized, blinded, crossover, experimental study. A total of nine healthy, adult Finnhorse mares. Horses were treated with an intravenous (IV) detomidine loading dose (0.01 mg kg–1), followed by CRI (0.015 mg kg–1 hour–1), and the same doses of detomidine combined with an IV vatinoxan loading dose (0.15 mg kg–1), followed by CRI (detomidine and vatinoxan; 0.05 mg kg–1 hour–1) with an 18 day washout period. Infusion time was 60 minutes and horses were monitored for 240 minutes after the infusion. Heart rate, borborygmi score and sedation were assessed, and blood glucose, insulin and triglyceride concentrations were measured. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ancova and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Values of p < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Insulin concentration decreased during (median nadir 1.7, range 0.0–2.9 μIU mL–1 at 60 minutes, p < 0.0001) and increased after detomidine CRI (median 36.6, range 11.7–78.4 μIU mL–1 at 180 minutes, p = 0.0001) significantly compared with detomidine and vatinoxan CRI. A significant elevation of blood glucose (peak 11.5 ± 1.6 mmol L–1 at 60 minutes, p < 0.0001) was detected during detomidine CRI. Vatinoxan alleviated the insulin changes and abolished the significant increase in blood glucose. Vatinoxan alleviated the decrease in heart rate (p = 0.0001) during detomidine infusion. No significant differences were detected in sedation scores between treatments. Vatinoxan attenuated the negative adverse effects of detomidine CRI and thus is potentially beneficial when used in combination with an α 2 -adrenoceptor agonist CRI in horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background In modern times, horses are utilized not only for labour and transportation purposes but also for recreational activities such as competition and pleasure riding. In these various pursuits, the role of vision plays a crucial role. Electroretinography is the most used test to diagnose diseases of the retinal outer segment. There is a wide variety of devices to perform the electroretinography differing one from each other in the corneal electrode and the light stimulation. The Koijman electrode has been tested in dogs but not in horses. The main purpose of this study was to compare electroretinography parameters from horses sedated with detomidine alone or in combination with butorphanol, during a standardized protocol using the Koijman electrode and RETI-port® system. Seven mares were allocated to the detomidine and detomidine plus butorphanol group in a randomised, controlled, crossover study. Friedman and Willcoxon-signed ranked tests were used to compare the electroretinogram parameters. A Student’s t-test was used to compare differences in the number of artefacts to valid values ratio obtained under both sedation protocols. Results Dark adaptation peaked after 16 min under scotopic conditions in both groups. No significant differences in electroretinogram parameters between groups were observed. During the mixed rod and cone response evaluation under scotopic conditions, all mares made a movement of the head resulting in a high number of artefacts. The detomidine plus butorphanol group showed a non-significant tendency to have fewer artefacts and a longer duration of sedation compared to the detomidine group. Conclusions Detomidine alone or combined with butorphanol may be suitable to use Koijman electrode and the RETI-port® to perform a standardized long protocol in horses with some adaptations.

ABSTRACT A study was designed to compare two sedation protocols to be used in horses undergoing orchiectomy when standing. In both protocols, the induction to the sedative state was performed with bolus detomidine at a dose of 10 µg/kg, intravenously (IV). In the first protocol (eight horses), the sedative state was maintained with 1% glyceryl guaiacol ether (GGE) in continuous infusion, at a dose of 1ml/kg/hour IV. In the second protocol (eight horses) this sedative effect was maintained with detomidine in continuous infusion at the same dose and induction route. Orchiectomy was performed on all animals. The two protocols allowed the surgeries to be performed when standing. However, horses kept under sedation by the GGE showed greater relaxation and a more intense degree of sedation. It should be noted that the use of GGE to maintain the sedative state in horses is unprecedented in the literature. The drug is used in anesthetic protocols in the species, but only in pre-anesthetic medication in general anesthesia. It was concluded that the two sedation protocols allowed the performance of orchiectomy with the horses when standing. However, the protocol in which 1% GGE was used showed more profound sedation, without adverse effects.

Background: In modern times, horses are utilized not only for labour and transportation purposes but also for recreational activities such as competition and pleasure riding. In these various pursuits, the role of vision plays a crucial role. Electroretinography is the most used test to diagnose diseases of the retinal outer segment. There is a wide variety of devices to perform the electroretinography differing one from each other in the corneal electrode and the light stimulation. The Koijman electrode has been tested in dogs but not in horses. The main purpose of this study was to compare electroretinography parameters from horses sedated with detomidine alone or in combination with butorphanol, during a standardized protocol using the Koijman electrode and RETI-port® system. Seven mares were allocated to the detomidine and detomidine plus butorphanol group in a randomised, controlled, crossover study. Friedman and Willcoxon-signed ranked tests were used to compare the electroretinogram parameters. A Student's t-test was used to compare differences in the number of artefacts to valid values ratio obtained under both sedation protocols. Results: Dark adaptation peaked after 16 min under scotopic conditions in both groups. No significant differences in electroretinogram parameters between groups were observed. During the mixed rod and cone response evaluation under scotopic conditions, all mares made a movement of the head resulting in a high number of artefacts. The detomidine plus butorphanol group showed a non-significant tendency to have fewer artefacts and a longer duration of sedation compared to the detomidine group. Conclusions: Detomidine alone or combined with butorphanol may be suitable to use Koijman electrode and the RETI-port® to perform a standardized long protocol in horses with some adaptations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Detomidine is an α‐2 agonist sedative drug which reduces the release of norepinephrine in nerves. Administering this drug through intranasal (IN) route could cause direct transmission to the central nervous system. Therefore, IN administration of detomidine would decrease the side effects and the onset of sedation. Objectives In this study, IN administration of detomidine in sheep through an atomiser was compared to its IV administration. Methods Fifteen mature female sheep with an approximate weight of 49.53 ± 1.72 kg were used. They were randomly divided into three groups: (1) atomising 10 μg/kg (IND10); (2) IV 10 μg/kg (IVD) and (3) atomising 30 μg/kg (IND30). Following administration, vital signs, electrocardiographic components, sedative score and biochemistry profile were measured after 15, 30 and 60 min, which were compared with the baseline measures. Results Bradycardia and the percentage of reduction from the baseline value in the respiratory rate were lower in the IND10 group compared to those in the IVD group. There was no significant difference in terms of the temperature and blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) among all the groups (p > 0.05). The level of cortisol declined in all the groups, and in the IND30 (60 min), it was significantly different with the baseline value. The level of glucose increased in all the groups compared to the baseline, which was not significant. Insulin concentration was reduced in all the groups, and in the IND30 group, it changed significantly 60 min after the drug administration. Sedation onset time was faster in the IV group. However, sedation scores between the two administration methods were not different, and only a dose‐dependent increase was found in the sedation score in the atomisation group. Conclusions Our findings revealed that IN atomisation of detomidine triggers similar sedation as its IV administration, which could be used as an alternative method.

Background: Alpha-2-adrenergic agonists have synergistic action on local anesthetics used in spinal anaesthesia. The objectives of this study was to compare the efficacy of intravenous dexmedetomidine with clonidine and placebo on sensory and motor blockade duration, and analgesia duration in patients undergoing lower limb surgeries under bupivacaine spinal anaesthesia. Methodology: A total of 90 ASA physical status 1 and 2 patients undergoing lower limb surgeries under spinal anaesthesia were randomized into three groups of 30 each in this prospective randomized controlled study. Group N (placebo group) received 10 ml of intravenous normal saline, group C (clonidine group) received 1μg/kg intravenous clonidine, whereas group D (dexmedetomidine group) received 0.5μg/kg of intravenous dexmedetomidine, all given 10min after administration of spinal anaesthesia with 15mg of 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine. Onset time and regression of sensory and motor blockade and duration of analgesia were recorded. Data was analyzed using analysis of variance or Chi-square test, with value of p<0.05 considered statistically significant. Result: Onset of sensory and motor blocks were similar across the groups, p>0.05. Duration of sensory and motor blocks were longer in dexmedetomidine group (295.7 + 37.3min and 307 + 29min), than clonidine group (187 + 13min and 229 + 31min) or placebo group (123 + 16.4min and 168 +20min), p<0.05. Duration to first postoperative rescue analgesia was longer in dexmedetomidine group (336.3 + 29.3min) as compared to clonidine (252.7 + 33.4min) and placebo(183.7 + 15.2min), p<0.05. Hypotension was significantly more in group D and group C as compared to group N, whereas other side effects were not significant and comparable among the groups. Conclusion: Intravenous dexmedetomidine is superior to intravenous clonidine as an adjuvant to bupivacaine spinal anaesthesia for lower limb surgeries to prolong duration of sensory and motor blockade and duration of analgesia with similar side effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Surgical procedures are routinely performed in calves, both under sedation and general anesthesia. The availability of analgesic drugs is limited in food-producing animals, making their perioperative management challenging. Few are the studies assessing the extent of pharmacological antinociception obtained when administering sedative and analgesics in cattle and the tools used are mainly qualitative. With the present study, we aimed at assessing the antinociceptive effect of butorphanol with or without detomidine in calves, using the modulation of the trigeminocervical reflex threshold as the main outcome. The trigeminocervical reflex threshold is a quantifiable nociceptive reflex that can be used to assess the modulation of pain processing. As secondary aims, physiological and behavioral effects of the administered treatments were evaluated, and the temporal profile of drug activity was described. This study provides quantitative evidence of the efficacy of butorphanol administered alone or combined with detomidine in calves. The presented findings can now contribute to optimizing the application of these drugs in clinical practice. (1) Background: The diagnostic and therapeutic procedures performed under sedation or general anesthesia in bovines are numerous. The analgesic drugs that can be legally used are few, making perioperative analgesia challenging. (2) Methods: Calves were administered butorphanol 0.1 mg kg−1 alone (SB) or combined with 0.02 mg kg−1 of a detomidine (DB) IV. The antinociceptive effect (trigeminocervical reflex threshold (TCRt)), as well as the behavioral (sedation and excitation) and physiological (heart and respiratory rate) changes were investigated. Five time windows were defined: BL (30 min pre-injection), T1 (0–30 min post-injection (PI)), T2 (31–60 min PI), T3 (61–90 min PI) and T4 (91–120 min PI). (3) Results: Both groups had a significative increase in TCRt at T1-T4 compared to the BL. The TCRt was significatively higher in DB than in SB at T1, T2 and T4. Heart rate decreased significatively in DB compared to that in BL. Calves were significantly more sedated in the DB group, and significantly more excited in the SB group compared to the BL. (4) Conclusions: Butorphanol alone has a statistically significant antinociceptive effect, but it elicits marked excitation, limiting its clinical applicability under this dosing regimen. The co-administration of detomidine eliminated the excitatory effect and induced consistent sedation and a significantly more pronounced antinociceptive effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Detomidine is an α‐2 agonist sedative drug which reduces the release of norepinephrine in nerves. Administering this drug through intranasal (IN) route could cause direct transmission to the central nervous system. Therefore, IN administration of detomidine would decrease the side effects and the onset of sedation. Objectives: In this study, IN administration of detomidine in sheep through an atomiser was compared to its IV administration. Methods: Fifteen mature female sheep with an approximate weight of 49.53 ± 1.72 kg were used. They were randomly divided into three groups: (1) atomising 10 μg/kg (IND10); (2) IV 10 μg/kg (IVD) and (3) atomising 30 μg/kg (IND30). Following administration, vital signs, electrocardiographic components, sedative score and biochemistry profile were measured after 15, 30 and 60 min, which were compared with the baseline measures. Results: Bradycardia and the percentage of reduction from the baseline value in the respiratory rate were lower in the IND10 group compared to those in the IVD group. There was no significant difference in terms of the temperature and blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) among all the groups (p > 0.05). The level of cortisol declined in all the groups, and in the IND30 (60 min), it was significantly different with the baseline value. The level of glucose increased in all the groups compared to the baseline, which was not significant. Insulin concentration was reduced in all the groups, and in the IND30 group, it changed significantly 60 min after the drug administration. Sedation onset time was faster in the IV group. However, sedation scores between the two administration methods were not different, and only a dose‐dependent increase was found in the sedation score in the atomisation group. Conclusions: Our findings revealed that IN atomisation of detomidine triggers similar sedation as its IV administration, which could be used as an alternative method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To evaluate the effects of detomidine or romifidine on cardiovascular function, isoflurane requirements and recovery quality in horses undergoing isoflurane anaesthesia. Prospective, randomized, blinded, clinical study. A total of 63 healthy horses undergoing elective surgery during general anaesthesia. Horses were randomly allocated to three groups of 21 animals each. In group R, horses were given romifidine intravenously (IV) for premedication (80 μg kg–1), maintenance (40 μg kg–1 hour–1) and before recovery (20 μg kg–1). In group D2.5, horses were given detomidine IV for premedication (15 μg kg–1), maintenance (5 μg kg–1 hour–1) and before recovery (2.5 μg kg–1). In group D5, horses were given the same doses of detomidine IV for premedication and maintenance but 5 μg kg–1 prior to recovery. Premedication was combined with morphine IV (0.1 mg kg–1) in all groups. Cardiovascular and blood gas variables, expired fraction of isoflurane (F e′ Iso), dobutamine or ketamine requirements, recovery times, recovery events scores (from sternal to standing position) and visual analogue scale (VAS) were compared between groups using either anova followed by Tukey, Kruskal-Wallis followed by Bonferroni or chi-square tests, as appropriate (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed between groups for F e′ Iso, dobutamine or ketamine requirements and recovery times. Cardiovascular and blood gas measurements remained within physiological ranges for all groups. Group D5 horses had significantly worse scores for balance and coordination (p = 0.002), overall impression (p = 0.021) and final score (p = 0.008) than group R horses and significantly worse mean scores for VAS than the other groups (p = 0.002). Detomidine or romifidine constant rate infusion provided similar conditions for maintenance of anaesthesia. Higher doses of detomidine at the end of anaesthesia might decrease the recovery quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to elucidate the sedative effect and physiological changes associated with the intramuscular injection of detomidine combined with morphine in horses. Six healthy crossbred horses, aged 2 to 10 years, were included. A crossover experimental design was used to compare the effects of intramuscular injection of 30 µg/kg of detomidine alone (IMD) and intramuscular administration of 30 µg/kg of detomidine and 0.1 mg/kg of morphine (IMDM). The degree of sedation, height of head above ground, were assessed at the time points before and 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 minutes after drug administration, and heart rate, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure, rectum temperature and intestinal motility were assessed at the time points before and 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 minutes after drug administration. The physiological parameters were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn’s post-hoc test and analysis of variance with t-test for independent samples and the sedation scores using the Friedman test and Mann Whitney U-test. P-values <0.05 indicated a statistically significant difference. IMDM promoted a higher sedative effect as compared to IMD, but the sedation occurred inconsistently. Additionally, a reduction in intestinal motility was observed with IMDM at 60, 75, 90, and 105 minutes after administration. IMDM promoted more variable sedation and prolonged reduction in the intestinal motility in the horses as compared to IMD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim of this study is to determine the embryotoxic dose limit of detomidine with an in-ovo model using fertile hen?s eggs. Materials and Methods: 210 fertile eggs were divided into 7 equal (n: 30) groups and placed in the incubator under optimum conditions. No application was made to the first group. On the seventh day, normal saline solution, 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, and 0.625 mg/kg doses of detomidine were administered to egg air-sacs in the other groups, respectively. On the 21st day, the eggs were opened and malformations, dead embryos and non-fertile eggs were determined. Results: While 3, 2, 4, 6 and 5 dead embryos were determined in 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg treated groups, respectively, no dead embryos were observed in the control and saline groups. While one non-fertile egg was determined in the control and 5 mg/kg detomidine groups, no nonfertile eggs were observed in the other groups. Mortality rates of detomidine group at doses of 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg were higher than the control and saline groups (p Conclusion: Considering that the used smallest dose is 7.8 times higher than the highest recommended dose for the target species, recommended dose can be accepted safe in pregnant mammals for embryonic death. However, considering that the dose should be 100 times lower as a safety factor for mammals, it should be taken into account that negativities may also be observed.

(1) Background: The diagnostic and therapeutic procedures performed under sedation or general anesthesia in bovines are numerous. The analgesic drugs that can be legally used are few, making perioperative analgesia challenging. (2) Methods: Calves were administered butorphanol 0.1 mg kg−1 alone (SB) or combined with 0.02 mg kg−1 of a detomidine (DB) IV. The antinociceptive effect (trigeminocervical reflex threshold (TCRt)), as well as the behavioral (sedation and excitation) and physiological (heart and respiratory rate) changes were investigated. Five time windows were defined: BL (30 min pre-injection), T1 (0–30 min post-injection (PI)), T2 (31–60 min PI), T3 (61–90 min PI) and T4 (91–120 min PI). (3) Results: Both groups had a significative increase in TCRt at T1-T4 compared to the BL. The TCRt was significatively higher in DB than in SB at T1, T2 and T4. Heart rate decreased significatively in DB compared to that in BL. Calves were significantly more sedated in the DB group, and significantly more excited in the SB group compared to the BL. (4) Conclusions: Butorphanol alone has a statistically significant antinociceptive effect, but it elicits marked excitation, limiting its clinical applicability under this dosing regimen. The co-administration of detomidine eliminated the excitatory effect and induced consistent sedation and a significantly more pronounced antinociceptive effect.

The population and distribution of the European brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Slovakia are expanding as bears were observed beyond the southern border of the country in Hungary. This study presents the authors' experience with field anaesthesia of wild brown bears trapped in a custom-made container trap and of free-ranging individuals. A total of 25 bears were captured and translocated using a specially designed metal cage trap. The study compared the effectiveness of three anaesthetic protocols in managing both free-ranging and trapped bears. For juveniles, or small adults up to 70 kg body weight (BW), ketamine-xylazine mixture was used at doses of 3.0–4.0 mg kg−1 ketamine and 1.0–1.5 mg kg−1 xylazine BW. The immobilisation of free-ranging bears, which are usually attracted by municipal solid garbage, was performed remotely using PneuDart darts with 2–3 ml of anaesthetics. For this purpose, tiletamine-zolazepam-detomidine (T-Z-D) was preferred at a dose of 1.7–2.5 (T) mg kg−1, 1.7–2.5 (Z) mg kg−1, and 0.1–0.2 (D) mg kg−1 BW. Induction time was from 7 to 18 min post darting with the average of 12.04 min. The same combination was applied to bears trapped in a container trap, with anaesthesia lasting from 40 to 150 min. If T-Z-D was used, no further anaesthetic was needed. In all cases, anaesthesia was antagonised by atipamezole at a dose of 0.15–0.225 mg kg−1 BW. Atipamezole was injected at a half dose intramuscularly and a half dose subcutaneously at the time when the palpebral reflex reappeared and the bear was able to move his tongue. It was shown that the T-Z-D mixture is a safe, low-volume anaesthetic darting protocol that is reversible, has minimal adverse effects on physiological parameters, and has a sufficient duration. The results can be used to manage large carnivore populations in the Carpathian region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was aimed to develop a suitable total intravenous anesthesia protocol by comparative efficacy of three different combinations of detomidine, midazolam, propofol and ketamine in goats undergoing rumenotomy. In total, 18 female goats were divided into 3 treatment groups A, B and C comprising 6 animals each. In Group-A, after sedation with detomidine @ 2.5 µg/kg, induction was achieved with propofol @ 4 mg/kg and maintenance with constant rate infusion of (detomidine 2.5 µg/kg/hr + propofol 9.6 mg/kg/hr). Similarly, in Group-B, after sedation with midazolam @ 0.25 mg/kg, induction was done with ketamine @ 4 mg/kg and maintenance with infusion of (midazolam 0.25 mg/kg/hr + ketamine 2.4 mg/kg/hr). Whereas, in Group-C, after sedation with (detomidine1.25 µg/kg + midazolam 0.12 mg/kg), induction was done with (propofol 2 mg/kg + ketamine 2 mg/kg) and maintenance with combination of all drugs (detomidine 1.2 µg/kg/hr + midazolam 0.12 mg/kg/hr + propofol 4.5 mg/kg/hr + ketamine 1.2 mg/kg/hr) using a syringedriving pump. Anesthetic, clinico-physiological and haematobiochemical parameters were evaluated. A better quality anesthesia with rapid and smooth induction, excellent muscle relaxation and rapid recovery was noticed in group C than group A and B. The statistical analysis indicated significant differences (p<0.05) for heart & respiratory rates, diastolic arterial pressure, partial pressure of oxygen and oxygen hemoglobin saturation among or within all groups except within group C. However, non-significant differences (p>0.05) were observed among or within all groups for packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total plasma protein and liver & renal function parameters. In conclusion, total intravenous anesthesia maintained with detomidine-midazolam-propofol-ketamine proved to be the best drug combinations taking into account the anesthetic, clinico-physiological and haematobiochemical parameters during pain management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to validate the effectiveness of electroacupuncture (EA), detomidine plus electroacupuncture and detomidine alone for laparoscopy in goats in terms of physiological variables, vital parameters, CBC and pain threshold. Fifteen healthy adult bucks divided into 3 groups (5 bucks/group); (group I) received electroacupuncture at 10 newly selected acupoints, (group II) get electroacupuncture plus detomidine and (group III) administered detomidine alone. The obtained data (M ±SD) were assessed at intervals (0 min.) before induction, (5 min.), (10 min.), (15 min.) and (20 min.) during induction, (30 min.), (45 min.) and (60 min.) throughout surgery and (24 hr) post-surgery, cortisol levels in serum at (0), (24 hr), and (72 hr) throughout laparoscopy. Group (I) showed improvement of the rates of eyelid closure, head and neck relaxation, rumen motility, and tympany. The respiratory rates, the body temperatures and capillary fill times for the three groups were not significantly different. Hematocrit, Hemoglobin, RBCs, Platelets and oxygen saturation (SpO2) were significant. ALT and AST showed no significance. Cortisol and pain threshold showed significant difference. Thus, electroacupuncture could be recommended for goat laparoscopic surgery as it works more potent and achieves sufficient abdominal anaesthesia superior to the other two regimes.

Abstract Background In metabolically stable horses, alpha‐2‐agonists suppress insulin secretion with transient hyperglycemia and rebound hyperinsulinemia. In horses with insulin dysregulation (ID), the effect of alpha‐2‐agonists has not been investigated; however, both the alpha‐2‐agonist‐induced suppression of insulin secretion and rebound hyperinsulinemia could have clinical relevance. Hypothesis/Objectives In horses with ID, alpha‐2‐agonists will alter insulin and glucose dynamics. Animals Seven horses with ID and 7 control horses. Methods In this randomized crossover study, xylazine hydrochloride (1.1 mg/kg) or detomidine hydrochloride (30 μg/kg) were administered IV, and blood was collected for glucose and insulin concentrations at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, and 300 minutes after administration. Horses received each drug in a random order with a 24‐hour washout period between drugs. Percent change in glucose and insulin concentrations was compared between groups, drugs, and over time with P

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to elucidate the sedative effect and physiological changes associated with the intramuscular injection of detomidine combined with morphine in horses. Six healthy crossbred horses, aged 2 to 10 years, were included. A crossover experimental design was used to compare the effects of intramuscular injection of 30 µg/kg of detomidine alone (IMD) and intramuscular administration of 30 µg/kg of detomidine and 0.1 mg/kg of morphine (IMDM). The degree of sedation, height of head above ground, were assessed at the time points before and 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 minutes after drug administration, and heart rate, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure, rectum temperature and intestinal motility were assessed at the time points before and 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 minutes after drug administration. The physiological parameters were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn’s post-hoc test and analysis of variance with t-test for independent samples and the sedation scores using the Friedman test and Mann Whitney U-test. P-values

Pharmacologically induced ex copula ejaculation is a method used for collection of semen when the traditional methods of semen collection are not feasible. Common indications for this method include health issues that either preclude the physical act of mating or result in impaired erection and ejaculation. The method also offers an alternative when there is a lack of equipment and facilities required for semen collection using the conventional artificial vagina method. A variety of pharmacological protocols for ex copula ejaculation in stallions have been evaluated in both research and clinical settings with no serious side-effects reported. In general, these protocols included tricyclic antidepressants, alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists, and smooth muscle stimulators, either individually or in combination. Although there is a lot of variation in the ejaculatory rates among studies, a combination of imipramine and xylazine appears to be an effective option for inducing ejaculation in stallions. In cases where this protocol is not successful, collections should be reattempted using a combination of imipramine, detomidine, and oxytocin. Regardless of the protocol used, a quiet environment with minimal disturbance is associated with a better outcome. In contrast to the body of literature available on pharmacologically induced ex copula ejaculation in horses, only a few studies have been published so far on this topic in donkeys. Further studies are warranted to investigate whether pharmacologically induced ex copula ejaculation is an effective method of semen collection in jacks and to compare different pharmacological protocols for inducing ejaculation in jacks.

To assess anesthetic induction, recovery quality and cardiopulmonary variables after intramuscular (IM) injection of three drug combinations for immobilization of horses. Randomized, blinded, three-way crossover prospective design. A total of eight healthy adult horses weighing 470–575 kg. Horses were administered three treatments IM separated by ≥1 week. Combinations were tiletamine–zolazepam (1.2 mg kg−1), ketamine (1 mg kg−1) and detomidine (0.04 mg kg−1) (treatment TKD); ketamine (3 mg kg−1) and detomidine (0.04 mg kg−1) (treatment KD); and tiletamine–zolazepam (2.4 mg kg−1) and detomidine (0.04 mg kg−1) (treatment TD). Parametric data were analyzed using mixed model linear regression. Nonparametric data were compared using Skillings–Mack test. A p value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. All horses in treatment TD became recumbent. In treatments KD and TKD, one horse remained standing. PaO 2 15 minutes after recumbency was significantly lower in treatments TD (p < 0.0005) and TKD (p = 0.001) than in treatment KD. Times to first movement (25 ± 15 minutes) and sternal recumbency (55 ± 11 minutes) in treatment KD were faster than in treatments TD (57 ± 17 and 76 ± 19 minutes; p < 0.0005, p = 0.001) and TKD (45 ± 18 and 73 ± 31 minutes; p = 0.005, p = 0.021). There were no differences in induction quality, muscle relaxation score, number of attempts to stand or recovery quality. In domestic horses, IM injections of tiletamine–zolazepam–detomidine resulted in more reliable recumbency with a longer duration when compared with ketamine–detomidine and tiletamine–zolazepam–ketamine–detomidine. Recoveries were comparable among protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The lack of standardization of sedation scales in horses limits the reproducibility between different studies. This prospective, randomized, blinded, horizontal and controlled trial aimed to validate a scale for sedation in horses (EquiSed). Seven horses were treated with intravenous detomidine in low/high doses alone (DL 2.5 μg/kg + 6.25 μg/kg/h; DH 5 μg/kg +12.5 μg/kg/h) or associated with methadone (DLM and DHM, 0.2 mg/kg + 0.05 mg/kg/h) and with low (ACPL 0.02 mg/kg) or high (ACPH 0.09 mg/kg) doses of acepromazine alone. Horses were filmed at (i) baseline (ii) peak, (iii) intermediate, and (iv) end of sedation immediately before auditory, visual and pressure stimuli were applied and postural instability evaluated for another study. Videos were randomized and blindly evaluated by four evaluators in two phases with 1-month interval. Intra- and interobserver reliability of the sum of EquiSed (Intraclass correlation coefficient) ranged between 0.84–0.94 and 0.45–0.88, respectively. The criterion validity was endorsed by the high Spearman correlation between the EquiSed and visual analog (0.77), numerical rating (0.76), and simple descriptive scales (0.70), and average correlation with head height above the ground (HHAG) (−0.52). The Friedman test confirmed the EquiSed responsiveness over time. The principal component analysis showed that all items of the scale had a load factor ≥ 0.50. The item-total Spearman correlation for all items ranged from 0.3 to 0.5, and the internal consistency was good (Cronbach's α = 0.73). The area under the curve of EquiSed HHAG as a predictive diagnostic measure was 0.88. The sensitivity of the EquiSed calculated according to the cut-off point (score 7 of the sum of the EquiSed) determined by the receiver operating characteristic curve, was 96% and specificity was 83%. EquiSed has good intra- and interobserver reliabilities and is valid to evaluate tranquilization and sedation in horses.

Pre-anesthetic treatment directly affects dose of induction agents that may result in least complication due to low anesthesia intake. The study was designed to investigate the effects of detomidine and midazolam on induction dose and quality of propofol and ketamine anesthesia in goats. Twelve female goats were randomly divided into six groups comprising two animals each. Control group (A) received (Normal saline+ propofol @4.20±0.10 mg/kg). While, group B received (detomidine@15µg/kg+ propofol), C received (detomidine@15µg/kg+ ketamine), D received (midazolam@0.25mg/kg+ propofol), E received (midazolam @ 0.25mg/kg+ ketamine) and group F received combination of all (detomidine @7µg/kg+ midazolam @ 0.12mg/kg+ propofol+ ketamine). The degree of sedation and analgesia, induction dose, % age reduction in induction dose, anesthesia quality and clinico-physiological parameters were evaluated. Detomidine-midazolam when administered combined, followed by induction with combination of propofol-ketamine caused deep sedation and analgesia, maximum % age reduction in induction dose and increased duration of anesthesia that differed significantly (p=0.05) from control and other treatment groups. Detomidine and midazolam when administered alone, followed by induction with propofol and ketamine caused mild sedation and analgesia, marked % age reduction in induction dose and increased duration of anesthesia that differed non significantly (p>0.05) from each other. The significant (p=0.05) changes in heart rate & respiratory rate and non-significant (p>0.05) changes in rectal temperature were noticed in all groups. It is concluded that the combination of detomidine-midazolam-propofol-ketamine was found to be safe and economical for short surgical procedures in goat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group clinical field study was to evaluate the effect of detomidine oromucosal gel in alleviating anxiety and fear in horses. Sixteen horses with a history of acute anxiety and fear associated with firework-related noise entered the study. On New Year's Eve, eight horses were treated with 30 μg/kg detomidine gel and eight horses with placebo gel. When fireworks were present, 75% (6/8) of the detomidine-treated horses were scored by their owners as having a good or excellent treatment effect on anxiety and fear, while 50% (3/6) of horses receiving placebo were scored to have a good effect. Horses' behavior was video-recorded and assessed with a focal animal continuous method by a treatment-blind expert observer. Results showed that when fireworks were present, walking behavior decreased significantly (p < 0.05) after treatment with detomidine and that horses of the placebo group, overall, showed more restlessness, vocalization, and signs of colic (Wilcoxon matched-pairs test on the first PC, p = 0.007). This study indicates that detomidine oromucosal gel can be used to alleviate acute noise-related anxiety and fear in horses, but larger treatment groups are needed to confirm the results.

To evaluate the sedative effects and pharmacokinetics of detomidine gel administered intravaginally to alpacas in comparison with intravenously (IV) administered detomidine. Randomized, crossover, blinded experiment. A group of six healthy adult female Huacaya alpacas (70.3 ± 7.9 kg). Alpacas were studied on two occasions separated by ≥5 days. Treatments were IV detomidine hydrochloride (70 μg kg−1; treatment DET–IV) or detomidine gel (200 μg kg−1; treatment DET–VAG) administered intravaginally. Sedation and heart rate (HR) were evaluated at intervals for 240 minutes. Venous blood was collected at intervals for 360 minutes after treatment for analysis of detomidine, carboxydetomidine and hydroxydetomidine using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Measured variables were compared between treatments and over time using mixed model analysis. Data are presented as the mean ± standard error of the mean, and a p value of <0.05 was considered significant. Onset of sedation was faster in treatment DET–IV (1.6 ± 0.2 minutes) than in treatment DET–VAG (13.0 ± 2.5 minutes). Time to maximum sedation was shorter in treatment DET–IV (8.3 ± 1.3 minutes) than in treatment DET–VAG (25 ± 4 minutes). Duration of sedation was not different between treatments. There was a significant linear relationship between sedation score and plasma detomidine concentration. HR was less than baseline for 60 and 125 minutes for treatments DET–IV and DET–VAG, respectively. The maximal decrease in HR occurred at 15 minutes for both treatments. The mean maximum plasma concentration of detomidine, time to maximum concentration and bioavailability for treatment DET–VAG were 39.6 ng mL−1, 19.9 minutes and 20%, respectively. Detomidine administration at the doses studied resulted in moderate sedation when administered IV or intravaginally to alpacas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To compare the effects of two different doses of butorphanol combined with detomidine administered intravenously (IV) on quality of sedation, degree of ataxia and anaesthetic induction in horses. Randomized, blinded, clinical study. A total of 40 client-owned healthy warmblood horses scheduled for elective surgery under general anaesthesia. Horses were randomly allocated to be administered 8 μg kg–1 detomidine IV plus either 20 or 50 μg kg–1 butorphanol IV, with the principal investigator blinded to group allocation. Head height was measured before drug injection and 2 minutes thereafter. Data were compared using unpaired t test. Horses were filmed and scored using Simple Descriptive Scales for sedation (2 and 15 minutes after IV injection), ataxia (at walk, immediately after the 2 minute time point) and quality of swing-door induction following diazepam and ketamine administration. Data are shown as median (and range where appropriate). Scores were compared using chi-square tests (p < 0.05). There were 14 and 17 horses in high-dose (HD) and low-dose (LD) groups respectively. Data from nine horses were excluded. Mean head height reduction did not differ between groups (p = 0.86), nor did sedation scores at 2 minutes (median = 3 in both groups; p = 0.09) or 15 minutes (median = 2 in both groups; p = 0.63). There was no significant difference in the requirement for additional detomidine (p = 0.73) or in induction quality between groups (p = 0.99), but initial ataxia was significantly greater in the HD group 2 (1–3) versus 2.5 (1–3) in the LD group (p = 0.017). In healthy warmblood horses, simultaneous administration of 50 rather than 20 μg kg–1 butorphanol with 8 μg kg–1 detomidine does not provide greater sedation or affect induction, but it causes more pronounced ataxia shortly after IV injection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In metabolically stable horses, alpha‐2‐agonists suppress insulin secretion with transient hyperglycemia and rebound hyperinsulinemia. In horses with insulin dysregulation (ID), the effect of alpha‐2‐agonists has not been investigated; however, both the alpha‐2‐agonist‐induced suppression of insulin secretion and rebound hyperinsulinemia could have clinical relevance. Hypothesis/Objectives: In horses with ID, alpha‐2‐agonists will alter insulin and glucose dynamics. Animals Seven horses with ID and 7 control horses. Methods: In this randomized crossover study, xylazine hydrochloride (1.1 mg/kg) or detomidine hydrochloride (30 μg/kg) were administered IV, and blood was collected for glucose and insulin concentrations at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, and 300 minutes after administration. Horses received each drug in a random order with a 24‐hour washout period between drugs. Percent change in glucose and insulin concentrations was compared between groups, drugs, and over time with P <.05 considered significant. Results: A significant time‐dependent effect of both alpha‐2‐agonists on glucose and insulin concentrations in control and ID horses was identified (P =.01 for all comparisons). There was no significant effect of sedative selection and endocrine status on blood glucose concentration in either group; however, in ID horses, xylazine administration resulted in severe rebound hyperinsulinemia whereas detomidine administration did not (P =.02). Conclusions and Clinical Importance: Alpha‐2‐agonists have a significant effect on glucose and insulin concentrations in horses. In ID horses, detomidine could minimize hyperinsulinemia when compared to xylazine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In equine and racing practice, detomidine and butorphanol are commonly used in combination for their sedative properties. The aim of the study was to produce detection times to better inform European veterinary surgeons, so that both drugs can be used appropriately under regulatory rules. Three independent groups of 7, 8 and 6 horses, respectively, were given either a single intravenous administration of butorphanol (100 µg/kg), a single intravenous administration of detomidine (10 µg/kg) or a combination of both at 25 (butorphanol) and 10 (detomidine) µg/kg. Plasma and urine concentrations of butorphanol, detomidine and 3‐hydroxydetomidine at predetermined time points were measured by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS). The intravenous pharmacokinetics of butorphanol dosed individually compared with co‐administration with detomidine had approximately a twofold larger clearance (646 ± 137 vs. 380 ± 86 ml hr−1 kg−1) but similar terminal half‐life (5.21 ± 1.56 vs. 5.43 ± 0.44 hr). Pseudo‐steady‐state urine to plasma butorphanol concentration ratios were 730 and 560, respectively. The intravenous pharmacokinetics of detomidine dosed as a single administration compared with co‐administration with butorphanol had similar clearance (3,278 ± 1,412 vs. 2,519 ± 630 ml hr−1 kg−1) but a slightly shorter terminal half‐life (0.57 ± 0.06 vs. 0.70 ± 0.11 hr). Pseudo‐steady‐state urine to plasma detomidine concentration ratios are 4 and 8, respectively. The 3‐hydroxy metabolite of detomidine was detected for at least 35 hr in urine from both the single and co‐administrations. Detection times of 72 and 48 hr are recommended for the control of butorphanol and detomidine, respectively, in horseracing and equestrian competitions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Jacks given imipramine and xylazine ejaculated in 1 out of 11 collection attempts. • Jacks given imipramine, detomidine, and oxytocin ejaculated in 0 out of 11 attempts. • No adverse effects were observed with either of the two pharmacological protocols. This study aimed to compare the efficacy of two pharmacological protocols for inducing ex copula ejaculation in donkeys. Seven healthy jacks (male donkeys) aged 4 to 20 years (median 8 years) and weighing 136.2±4.17 kg (mean±SE) were enrolled. Using a crossover design, each jack was subjected in a random order to two treatment protocols (IX and IDO) with an interval of 7 days between the two protocols. Each jack was orally administered 3 mg/kg imipramine hydrochloride followed 2 hours later by intravenous (IV) administration of 1.1 mg/kg xylazine hydrochloride (IX protocol) or 0.02 mg/kg detomidine hydrochloride and 20 IU total dose oxytocin (IDO protocol). The jacks were monitored for behavioral changes and ejaculation up to 3 hours from the beginning of each protocol. A total of 22 ex copula ejaculation replicates were attempted. Both protocols resulted in deep sedation and partial to complete penile protrusion in all jacks. There was no difference in the efficacy with the IX protocol inducing ejaculation in 1 of the 11 replicates and the IDO protocol inducing ejaculation in none of the 11 replicates. The results suggest that neither of the two tested pharmacological protocols were effective in inducing ex copula ejaculation in donkeys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pain management is necessary for all surgical procedures. Little scientific evidence about drug efficacy in donkeys is available. The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effect of butorphanol in donkeys undergoing orchiectomy under total intravenous anaesthesia with guaifenesin-ketamine-detomidine. A randomized blinded prospective clinical trial (Protocol n. 2021/0000338), was carried out on 18 clinically healthy donkeys undergoing bilateral orchiectomy. Patients were assigned to Group D (n = 8) or Group DB (n = 10) if receiving intravenous detomidine or detomidine-butorphanol respectively, before induction of general anaesthesia with ketamine-diazepam. Intraoperative muscle relaxation, nystagmus, palpebral reflex, heart and respiratory rate, and non-invasive blood pressure were evaluated every 2 min; time to prepare the patient, duration of surgery and anaesthesia and recovery score were recorded. Group D had significantly longer surgical time, higher heart rate, higher systolic and mean blood pressure (p < 0.05; repeated measure ANOVA), increased muscle rigidity and expression of palpebral reflex (p < 0.05; Mann–Whitney U test) than group DB. Top-ups with thiopental were statistically higher in Group D. Butorphanol and detomidine together produced a more stable anaesthetic plan. The low dosage of opioid and alpha-2-agonists and reduced rescue anaesthesia are responsible for a safer and more superficial anaesthesia, which is mandatory under field conditions.

To determine the sedative effects and pharmacokinetic profile of detomidine when administered intravaginally as a gel formulation to horses. Randomized, crossover, masked experimental design. A group of six healthy adult mares (494 ± 56 kg). Mares were studied on two occasions and were administered either detomidine hydrochloride (10 μg kg–1) intravenously (treatment IV) or detomidine gel (40 μg kg–1) intravaginally (treatment IVG), separated by 1 week. Sedation, ataxia, muzzle–floor distance and heart rate (HR) were evaluated every 15 minutes for 240 minutes. Venous blood samples were collected at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 240, 300 and 360 minutes postadministration and were analyzed for detomidine and metabolites using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Measured variables were compared over time and between treatments using mixed model analysis. Correlation between drug plasma concentrations and muzzle–floor distance, and sedation and ataxia scores was determined using the Spearman correlation coefficient. Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean and p value was set at <0.05. Sedation was shorter with IV (119 ± 16 minutes) than with IVG (188 ± 22 minutes). Ataxia scores remained greater than baseline for 90 and 135 minutes for treatments IV and IVG, respectively. HR was lower than baseline for 45 and 30 minutes for IV and IVG, respectively, but did not differ between treatments. The mean maximum plasma concentration of detomidine, time to maximum concentration and bioavailability for treatment IVG was 8.57 ng mL–1, 0.37 hour and 25%, respectively. There was a significant correlation (r = 0.68) between plasma detomidine concentrations and sedation score. Detomidine gel administered intravaginally resulted in clinically important sedation and is a viable method for detomidine gel delivery in mares. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Chemical restraint is often used to perform diagnostic and minor surgical procedures; α2‐adrenoceptor agonists are the most commonly used drugs; however, the combination with an opiate can induce a profound sedation. There is a lack of kinematic studies examining the effects of the combination of these drugs on locomotor patterns. Objectives: The objective of the study was to evaluate the duration of the effects of sedation with detomidine and detomidine combined with a low dose of butorphanol on the movement patterns of horses. Study design: The study was a controlled, randomised, blinded and crossover experiment. Methods: Each of six horses was injected intravenously with saline (0.9%) solution (10 mL), detomidine diluted in saline solution (0.01 mg/kg bwt) or a combination of detomidine (0.01 mg/kg bwt) and butorphanol (0.02 mg/kg bwt) diluted in saline solution, in a random order. A single accelerometer positioned at the sacrum was used for gait assessment 15 min before (baseline) and 5, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105 and 120 min after each injection. Eight variables were measured, including speed, stride frequency, stride length, regularity, dorsoventral power, propulsive power, mediolateral power and total power; force of acceleration and the three components of power were calculated. The degree of sedation was measured by the ground‐to‐lip distance. Results: There were significant differences among groups, with shorter effects after the injection of the combination of drugs, for most parameters. Main limitations: A small number of horses were involved in the study. Conclusions: The combination of detomidine and butorphanol produces a shorter effect on almost all accelerometric parameters, probably due to the excitement produced by the opioid drug causing a quicker return to normal values. Accelerometry offers a method of objectively monitoring gait abnormalities in walking sedated horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine time to first passage of feces, total fecal piles and incidence of colic in the first 24 hours postprocedure in horses undergoing standing sedation with detomidine, or general anesthesia with or without detomidine. Retrospective cohort study. A total of 246 horses. Records of all horses that underwent standing sedation or general anesthesia between December 2012 and March 2016 were reviewed. Horses aged <6 months, admitted for colic or cesarean section, with inadequate data, and those not administered xylazine and/or detomidine were excluded. Records included patient signalment, fasting duration, procedure performed, drugs administered, time to first feces, number of fecal piles during 24 hours postprocedure and mention of colic. Chi-square, Fisher's exact and Tukey's post hoc comparison tests were used. Parametric data were reported as mean ± standard deviation with significance defined as p <0.05. In total, 116 and 57 horses underwent general anesthesia without detomidine (group GA) and with detomidine (group GA–D), respectively, and remaining 73 horses underwent standing sedation with detomidine (group S–D). Detomidine dose was significantly higher in group S–D than in group GA–D. Time to first feces was longer (7.1 ± 4.2 hours), and group S–D horses passed one fewer fecal pile (6.3 ± 2.4) than group GA horses. There was no interaction between detomidine treatment and preprocedure food withholding and the time to first feces or the number of fecal piles in the first 24 hours postprocedure. Overall, seven horses (2.8%) showed signs of colic (five, one and one in GA, GA–D and S–D, respectively). Detomidine administration, as part of an anesthetic protocol or for standing sedation procedures, should not be expected to contribute to postprocedural colic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to determine the physiological effects of detomidine on Pateri goats. A total of six female Pateri goats were randomly treated with three different dose rates of Detomidine at 40 μg, 50 μg and 60 μg/kg body weights. The effects of Detomidine on respiratory and heart rate, rectal temperature and serum glucose level were investigated. Following detomidine intravenous administration in goats, it produced dose dependent effect on physiological parameters. Respiratory and heart rate decreased after intravenous administration in all goats. The heart rate decreased at 5 min with all dose rates and returned to the base line at 60 min. This change in heart rate was dose dependent and there was no significant (P>0.05) change observed with 40 μg and 50 μg/kg of Detomidine. However, there was significant difference (P

The aim of this study was to evaluate the sedative-anesthetic effects of detomidine (D) 30 µg/kg, intramuscular (IM), butorphanol (B) 0.2 mg/kg IM and ketamine (K) 5 mg/kg, IM combination in sheep. Five female and nine male healthy (1-2 years old) Akkaraman sheep were used as animal material. Detomidine and butorphanol were used to produce sedation. Ten minutes later K was administrated for anaesthesia. The anaesthetic effect of the drugs was reserved by atipamezole (AT) 30 µg/kg, IM administration at 30 minutes after K injection. The sedative effects of DB demerged in 3 minutes after injection and anaesthetic effects (by the lack of pain stimuli) were visible in 5 minutes after K injection. Heart rate, body temperature and amplitude P values significantly decreased until the administration of AT. Contrarily, respiratory rate, PR interval and R amplitude values increased during anesthesia. Partial venous oxygen pressure (PO2) and Partial venous carbon dioxide pressure (PCO2) values decreased during anaesthesia. There were no significant alterations seen for hematological parameters including hemoglobin (Hg), white blood cell (WBC), red blood cell (RBC) and hematocrit (Ht) values in sheep. As a result, BDK anaesthetic combination depresses the cardiorespiratoric system but produces adequate sedation and anaesthesia for sheep. AT can be safely used for this anaesthetic combination in sheep. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objective To evaluate the effect of the peripherally acting α 2 -adrenoceptor antagonist vatinoxan (MK-467) on the sedative properties of medetomidine (MED) when injected intramuscularly (IM) in the same syringe and on reversal of this sedation with atipamezole in sheep. Study design Randomized, blinded, crossover experimental trial. Animals Eight healthy adult female sheep. Methods Sheep received MED (30 μg kg–1 IM) alone or combined in the same syringe with vatinoxan (300 μg kg–1 IM, MED+VAT) with a 2 week washout period. Atipamezole (150 μg kg–1 IM) was administered 30 minutes later for reversal. Sedation was assessed using two sedation scores, a visual analog score and a descriptive scale before treatments (T0) and at intervals up to 5 hours thereafter. Pulse rate (PR) was counted at T0 and at 30 (T30) and 90 (T90) minutes. Rectal temperature was measured at T0 and T90 postinjection. Plasma samples were analyzed for drug concentrations at T30 and T90. Results The first signs of sedation were seen significantly earlier after MED+VAT (4.6 ± 1.7 minutes versus 9.4 ± 2.6 minutes after MED) and the sedation scores were significantly higher after MED+VAT than MED. All animals laid with head down 10.0 ± 3.4 minutes after MED+VAT, whereas three MED animals did not become recumbent before atipamezole was administered. The plasma concentrations of dexmedetomidine were significantly higher at T30 (2.47 ± 0.2 ng mL–1) and significantly lower at T90 (1.23 ± 0.3 ng mL–1) with MED+VAT than with MED (1.19 ± 0.8 and 1.83 ± 0.4 ng mL–1, respectively). While no significant differences were observed between treatments in PR at T30, PR at T90 was significantly higher with MED+VAT than with MED. Conclusions and clinical relevance When administered IM in the same syringe, vatinoxan hastened and intensified the initial sedative effects of MED and enhanced the sedation reversal by atipamezole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of intramuscular (IM) detomidine and butorphanol on sedation, arterial blood gases, and bowel motility in sixteen healthy Amiata donkeys undergoing bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Before administration of detomidine and butorphanol, baseline values for heart rate (HR), respiratory frequency (f r), rectal temperature, arterial blood gases, and sedation score (range 0–9) were recorded as Tbase and bowel motility was assessed. Sedation was assessed with a composite sedation scale. After IM injection of detomidine 0.06 mg kg−1 and butorphanol 0.05 mg kg−1, HR, f r, temperature, and sedation score were registered every 5 minutes. Arterial blood was sampled when sedation score was greater than or equal to 6 right before performing the diagnostic procedure (T1) and at a sedation score of 3 or lower, which was considered the end of sedation (T2). Bowel motility was assessed every hour after the end of sedation. Sedation score of 6 or more was reached after 10 minutes in all animals. Mean sedation time was 38.8 ± 5.2 minutes. PaO 2 , HR, and f r were significantly lower at T1 and T2 compared to Tbase values. Fshunt significantly increased at T2, in comparison to Tbase. Time from injection to return to normal bowel motility was 272 ± 62 minutes. Intramuscular detomidine and butorphanol provided satisfactory sedation for BAL in donkeys, in terms of reliability and duration. Clinicians should be aware of the reduction of PaO 2 that can arise. Highlights • Intramuscular detomidine and butorphanol at the studied dosage produced adequate sedation for BAL • Sedation with detomidine 0.06 mg kg−1 and butorphanol 0.05 mg kg−1 lasted about 30 minutes • Detomidine 0.06 mg kg−1 and butorphanol 0.05 mg kg−1 provoked a significant reduction of PaO 2 and a significant increase of the Fshunt • Normal bowel motility was recovered about 5 hours after IM administration of detomidine and butorphanol [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long QT syndrome (LQTS) is a channelopathy that can lead to severe arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death. Pharmacologically induced LQTS is caused by interaction between drugs and potassium channels, especially the Kv11.1 channel. Due to such interactions, numerous drugs have been withdrawn from the market or are administered with precautions in human medicine. However, some compounds, such as trimethoprim–sulfonamide combinations are still widely used in veterinarian medicine. Therefore, we investigate the effect of trimethoprim–sulfadiazine (TMS), trimethoprim, sulfadiazine, and detomidine on equine‐specific Kv11.1 channels. Kv11.1 channels cloned from equine hearts were heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, and whole cell currents were measured by two‐electrode voltage‐clamp before and after drug application. TMS blocked equine Kv11.1 current with an IC50 of 3.74 m m (95% CI: 2.95–4.73 m m) and affected the kinetics of activation and inactivation. Similar was found for trimethoprim but not for sulfadiazine, suggesting the effect is due to trimethoprim. Detomidine did not affect equine Kv11.1 current. Thus, equine Kv11.1 channels are also susceptible to pharmacological block, indicating that some drugs may have the potential to affect repolarization in horse. However, in vivo studies are needed to assess the potential risk of these drugs to induce equine LQTS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study intended to evaluate the effects of a2-adrenoceptor agonists (xylazine, medetomidine and detomidine) on clinical status and cardiopulmonary system in dogs. A total of 30 dogs were randomly assigned to 3 different groups. Following fasting period of 12 hours, xylazine (1 mg/kg IM), medetomidine (25 µ/kg IM) and detomidine (20 µg/kg IM) were administered to groups I, II and III, respectively. Body temperature, heart rates, and respiratory rates were recorded at predetermined times before and after injections. Serum electrolyte, biochemical parameters, blood gases were also evaluated in the blood samples before and after injection. ECG was recorded before, during and after sedation. Decrease in heart rate was found significant in all of the groups. Decrease in the respiration rate was statistically significant (P<0.001) for groups I and II, but not for group III. The decrease in body temperature was statistically significant (P<0.01) only in medetomidine group. Regarding to the biochemical parameters, the increase in blood glucose level was only statistically significant (P<0.05) in group I. Bradycardia, sinoatrial block, 20 Mobitz Type I, and 20 Mobitz Type II block were observed in all groups according to the ECG. Only in medetomidine group, heart rhythm disorders such as escape beat and escape rhythm were observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was performed to evaluate the sedative and analgesic effects of different combinations of Acepromazine, Detomidine, Xylazine and Ketamine intravenously (IV) administered to 25 horses at stance during minor surgical procedures and clinical examinations. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of horses at before sedation and post sedation at 15 minutes, 30 minutes, and 60 minutes. The serum cortisol level were evaluated. Analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) were performed with p<0.05. Serum cortisol mean values showed initial decline in all groups except group C (Acepromazine + Ketamine), which showed increase in mean values at 15 minutes post drug administration. The effect of drug combination of Acepromazine and Ketamine (Group C) was significantly different from drug combination of Acepromazine, Detomidine and Ketamine (Group D) on serum cortisol mean values. However, there was no statistical difference between pre-sedation and post-sedation cortisol values at 15, 30, and 60 minutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of sheep in experiments is widespread and is increasing worldwide, and so is the need to develop species-specific anaesthetic techniques to ensure animal safety. Previous studies have mentioned several protocols involving the administration of alpha-2 adrenergic agonists in sheep; however, assessment of the efficacy and safety of these infusion techniques is still relatively new. Thus, the aim of the present study is to assess the effectiveness of detomidine constant rate infusion (CRI) in sheep by measuring the cardiovascular and respiratory parameters, blood gas variables and sedation scores. Eight adult female Santa Inês sheep received 20 µg/kg of detomidine hydrochloride intravenously as a bolus loading dose, followed by an infusion rate of 60 µg/kg/h. The heart rates and respiratory rates changed continuously during the CRI period. No arrhythmias were observed. The reduction in arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) was not significant, but one animal showed signs of hypoxaemia (minimum PaO2 of 66.9 mmHg). The arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) increased, but the animals did not become hypercapnic. The bicarbonate (HCO3−), pH and base excess (BE) tended towards metabolic alkalosis. The cardiac output (CO), stroke volume (SV), cardiac index (CI) and ejection fraction (EF%) showed no significant changes. The fractional shortening (FS%) decreased slightly, starting at T45min. Sedation scores varied between 3 (0/10) after sedation and during recovery and 7 (0/10) during CRI. We concluded that administering detomidine at an infusion rate of 60 µg/kg/h in Santa Inês sheep is a simple technique that produces satisfactory sedation for minimally invasive procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several reproductive diseases can prevent ejaculation by the traditional method of collection. Neoplasias as squamous cell carcinoma is the most common tumor of the external genitalia of horses and its lesions usually prevent copulation. The pharmacological induction of ejaculation is an important alternative technique to obtain and preserve the genetic material of stallions incapable of ejaculating by traditional methods of semen collection. However, the protocols currently used have shown questionable results and new protocols are needed in order to increase the success rates. The aim of this study is to report the success of a new protocol in inducing ejaculation when oral imipramine and intravenous oxytocin and detomidine were administrated in a Crioulo stallion. Case: A 9-year-old Crioulo stallion was admitted at the Veterinary Hospital of the São Paulo State University, FMVZUNESP, Botucatu, Brazil, with a history of a mass located on the glans and body of the penis. The histopathological exam confirmed the diagnostic of Squamous cell carcinoma and penectomy was performed. After 10 days of surgery the stallion was submitted to 5 different protocols with 3 days interval between the follow protocols: Imipramine+Xylazine; Imipramine+ Xylazine+Oxytocin; Imipramine+Detomidine and Imipramine+Detomidine+Oxytocin. Discussion: The traditional protocol of pharmacologically-induced ejaculation with imipramine hydrochloride (3 mg/kg/v.o) and xylazine hydrochloride (0.66 mg/kg/iv) was not successful even when oxytocin (20 UI/iv) was added to this protocol. Administration of imipramine hydrochloride (3 mg/kg/v.o) two hours prior to administration of detomidine hydrochloride (0.02 mg/kg/i.v) also did not result in ejaculation. However, administration of imipramine hydrochloride (3 mg/kg/v.o) 2 h prior to administration of detomidine hydrochloride (0.02 mg/kg/i.v) associated with oxytocin (20 U.I/i.v) resulted in ejaculation. The stallion was submitted to three seminal collections with a three-day interval between administration of the protocol and ejaculated in all the attempts after approximately 5 min of detomidine and oxytocin injection, presenting mean values of 50 mL of total volume (TV) and concentration of 80x106 spermatozoa/mL. The VT was higher and concentration was lower when compared to ejaculates obtained by pharmacological induction in previous studies, probably due to daily stimulation with estrus mare to induce penile exposure in order to allow antisepsis of the surgical wound. Thus, it is believed that the large amount of total volume of this stallion is due to the high production of gel by the accessory sex glands, with consequent reduction of ejaculate concentration. The sperm kinetics were evaluated by the computerized method CASA (HTMA-IVOS-12) with total motility (MT) of 84% and progressive (MP) of 38%, with 70% of rapid spermatozoa (RAP), being considered normal to the equine specie and similar to those observed by other authors in pharmacolocally-induced ejaculates. Post-thaw sperm kinetics presented 42% of MT, 21% of MP and 28% of RAP probably due to an intrinsic sensitivity of the stallion to the freezing process. Thus, this report concludes that the protocol associating imipramine, detomidine and oxytocin was efficient in the pharmacological induction of ejaculation, presenting normal and characteristic sperm parameters of the specie. Fresh and refrigerated semen presented good parameters for use in conventional artificial inseminations while frozen semen is indicated for deep horn inseminations or for use in intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports a case of a large laceration with great loss of skin at the dorsal medial portion of the right pelvic member, with partial exposure of the metatarsal and the long extensor tendon of the fingers in a 8-month-old Quare Horse mare. A treatment was prescribed based on antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs, with an intervention of the wound on alternate days after tranquilization with detomidine. The initial contamination, associated with the size and magnitude of the injury, contributed to a delay of 170 days for the wound to heal. Repeated and prolonged use of detomidine did not cause any cardiovascular changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alpha-2 agonists induce changes in the hemogram in equines. The aim of the present study was to examine the magnitude of changes in the selected blood parameters produced by various a-2- agonists combinations. For this purpose, 25 horses were the animals of study during different clinical examinations and minor surgical interventions in standing sedation. Blood samples were collected from the jugular venipuncture of horses before sedation, 15 mins., 30 mins., and 60 mins., after drug administration.The blood parameters evaluated were Packed cell volume (PCV), Haemoglobin concentration (Hb), Red blood cells (RBC), Total leukocytes count (TLC), and Differential leucocytes count (DLC) (neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes). Analysis of variance (1-way ANOVA) were performed with p<0.05. Hb, PCV, TLC and DLC declined gradually in all groups post drug administration. Pre-sedation values for all parameters were significantly different from post-sedation values at 15, 30, and 60 minutes. There was no significant effect of drug groups on Hb, neutrophil and eosinophil values. Group A (Acepromazine + Detomidine combination) produced significant decrease in PCV values compared with group C (Acepromazine + Ketamine) and group D (Acepromazine + Detomidine + Ketamine). RBC values of group B (Detomidine + Ketamine) showed significant difference compared with group C, D, & E (Acepromazine + Xylazine + Ketamine). TLC and monocyte values of group B were significantly different from D & E groups. It was concluded that drug combination with acepromazine, detomidine, xylazine and ketamine cause minimal hematological side effects. Therefore, these drugs could be safely used for inducing standing sedation in horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General anesthesia poses risks for larger zoo species, like cardiorespiratory depression, myopathy, and hyperthermia. In ruminants, ruminal bloat and regurgitation of rumen contents with potential aspiration pneumonia are added risks. Thus, the use of sedation to perform minor procedures is justified in zoo animals. A combination of detomidine and butorphanol has been routinely used in domestic animals. This drug combination, administered by remote intramuscular injection, can also be applied for standing sedation in a range of zoo animals, allowing a number of minor procedures. The combination was successfully administered in five species of nondomesticated equids (Przewalski horse [ Equus ferus przewalskii; n = 1], onager [ Equus hemionus onager; n = 4], kiang [ Equus kiang; n = 3], Grevy's zebra [ Equus grevyi; n = 4], and Somali wild ass [ Equus africanus somaliensis; n = 7]), with a mean dose range of 0.10-0.17 mg/kg detomidine and 0.07-0.13 mg/kg butorphanol; the white ( Ceratotherium simum simum; n = 12) and greater one-horned rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis; n = 4), with a mean dose of 0.015 mg/kg of both detomidine and butorphanol; and Asiatic elephant bulls ( Elephas maximus; n = 2), with a mean dose of 0.018 mg/kg of both detomidine and butorphanol. In addition, the combination was successfully used for standing sedation in six species of artiodactylids: giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata; n = 3), western bongo ( Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus; n = 2), wisent ( Bison bonasus; n = 5), yak ( Bos grunniens; n = 1), water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis; n = 4) and Bactrian camel ( Camelus bactrianus; n = 5). The mean dose range for artiodactylid species except bongo was 0.04-0.06 mg/kg detomidine and 0.03-0.06 mg/kg butorphanol. The dose in bongo, 0.15-0.20 mg/kg detomidine and 0.13-0.15 mg/kg butorphanol, was considerably higher. Times to first effect, approach, and recovery after antidote were short. The use of detomidine and butorphanol has been demonstrated to be a reliable, safe alternative to general anesthesia for a number of large ungulate species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Juvenile male pigs were sedated for castration. Eight five-month old boars were sedated twice (two weeks apart) with a combination of detomidine (0.1 mg/kg), midazolam (0.2 mg/kg) and either butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg) (Group MDB, n = 8) or morphine (0.2 mg/kg) (Group MDM, n = 8) intramuscularly. The boars were positioned in lateral recumbency and lidocaine (200 mg total) was injected into the testicle and scrotal skin. Castration of a single testicle was performed on two occasions. Sedation and reaction (to positioning and surgery) scores, pulse rate, respiratory rate, haemoglobin oxygen saturation, body temperature, arterial blood gas parameters and the times to immobility and then recovery were recorded. Atipamezole was administered if spontaneous recovery was not evident within 60 min of sedative administration. Data were compared with either a paired-sample t-test or a Wilcoxon-Signed Rank Test. There was no difference in sedation score, body temperature, respiratory rate and haemoglobin oxygen saturation between MDB and MDM. Mild hypoxaemia was noted in both groups. There was less reaction to castration after MDB. The pulse rate was higher after MDM sedation. The times to immobility and then recovery were similar. The combination of MDB provided more reliable sedation than MDM. MDB may be useful for sedation for short procedures in pigs, though oxygen supplementation is recommended to avoid hypoxaemia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to document sedation and analgesic effects, electrocardiographic (ECG) parameters, and some physiologic variable and serum concentrations of electrolytes after intravenous (IV) administration of detomidine in camels. Five healthy female dromedary camels ( Camelus dromedarius) aged 2 years and average weight of 200 ± 20 kg were used. Data were recorded before and 3, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 90 min after IV administration of detomidine (50 μg kg). Sedation and antinociception response were recorded. The ECG was attached as a bipolar base-apex lead, and indices measured and analyzed were P, QRS, and T wave amplitude, duration and configuration, and duration of P-R, Q-T, and R-R intervals. Venous blood was collected for the measurement of sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P) concentrations. Posture and behavioral observed after detomidine administration were depression, swaying, tremors, muscular weakness, nasal discharge, drooling, drooping of head and lower lip, hind limb ataxia, anorexia, frequent urination, staggering, snoring, and nystagmus. Significantly increased in sedation scores and antinociception grades were seen. Heart rate (HR) was significantly decreased. Amplitude of P, QRS, and T waves, and P-R interval durations were not significantly changed from baseline during sedation. Durations of Q-T and R-R intervals were significantly prolonged after detomidine injection ( p < 0.05). Sinus arrhythmia and bradycardia were recorded in five out of five camels from 3 to 60 min after detomidine administration. ECG waves configurations were not changed during sedation. Serum concentrations of all electrolytes were not changed after detomidine injection ( p > 0.05). Detomidine produced a rapid and reliable sedation and antinociception, and could be used for a variety of diagnostic and surgical procedures in C. dromedarius without cardiopulmonary disease in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Influence of detomidine or romifidine constant rate infusion (CRI) on plasma lactate concentration and isoflurane requirements in horses undergoing elective surgery. Study design Prospective, randomised, blinded, clinical trial. Animals A total of 24 adult healthy horses. Methods All horses were administered intramuscular acepromazine (0.02 mg kg-1) and either intravenous detomidine (0.02 mg kg-1) (group D), romifidine (0.08 mg kg-1) (group R) or xylazine (1.0 mg kg-1) (group C) prior to anaesthesia. Group D was administered detomidine CRI (10 mg kg-1 hour-1) in lactated Ringer's solution (LRS), group R romifidine CRI (40 μg kg-1 hour-1) in LRS and group C an equivalent amount of LRS intraoperatively. Anaesthesia was induced with ketamine and diazepam and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. Plasma lactate samples were taken prior to anaesthesia (baseline), intraoperatively (three samples at 30 minute intervals) and in recovery (at 10 minutes, once standing and 3 hours after end of anaesthesia). End-tidal isoflurane percentage (FE 'Iso) was analysed by allocating values into three periods: Prep (15 minutes after the start anaesthesiaestart surgery); Surgery 1 (start surgerye30 minutes later); and Surgery 2 (end Surgery 1eend anaesthesia). A linear mixed model was used to analyse the data. A value of p < 0.05 was considered significant. Results There was a difference in plasma lactate between 'baseline' and 'once standing' in all three groups (p < 0.01); values did not differ significantly between groups. In groups D and R, FE 'Iso decreased significantly by 18% (to 1.03%) and by 15% (to 1.07%), respectively, during Surgery 2 compared with group C (1.26%); p < 0.006, p < 0.02, respectively. Conclusions and clinical relevance Intraoperative detomidine or romifidine CRI in horses did not result in a clinically significant increase in plasma lactate compared with control group. Detomidine and romifidine infusions decreased isoflurane requirements during surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]