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Although numerous individual studies have attempted to link child-parent attachment and prosociality, a systematic picture of that relationship requires a meta-analytic approach that considers different dimensions of prosociality and potential moderators. The current meta-analysis examined 41 studies drawn primarily from North America and Europe and published between 1978 to 2020. Child age ranged from 12 to 53 months at the assessment of child-parent attachment and 12 to 108 months at the assessment of prosociality. Across 35 studies (100 effect sizes, N = 4,611), child-mother attachment security and child prosociality were significantly associated (r = 0.19, 95% CI [0.14, 0.23]). No moderators were identified. Exploratory estimates were also derived for subtypes of child-mother attachment insecurity. Across six studies (eight effect sizes, N = 402), child-father attachment security was significantly associated with prosociality (r = 0.11, 95% CI [0.02, 0.23]). The magnitude of effect sizes did not differ based on parent gender. The discussion considers areas of growth for attachment and prosociality research.

Past meta-analyses show that both child-mother and child-father attachment insecurity are independently and jointly associated with more externalizing behaviors in children. Little is known, however, on the ways that different types of insecure attachment independently and jointly predict the development of externalizing behaviors over time. Existing work also neglects the impact of children's gender within the context of child-father relationships. The current study addresses these limitations by investigating how insecure type of child-father attachment, child-mother attachment, and their interaction in the preschool years predict boys' and girls' externalizing behaviors in middle childhood, when controlling for children's externalizing behaviors in the preschool years. The sample included 144 preschool-aged children (M = 46.89 months, SD = 8.77, 83 girls) and both of their parents. At Time 1, children completed independent separation-reunion procedures with each parent, which were coded using the "Preschool Attachment Rating Scales." At Time 1 and Time 2 (5 years later), mothers and fathers completed the "Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire" to report on their children's externalizing behaviors. Results showed no systematic differences in the way that child-mother and child-father attachment predicted the development of externalizing behaviors in boys and girls. Across all children, results identified an interaction of child-father and child-mother ambivalence, by which the presence of ambivalence toward both parents predicted the development of more externalizing behaviors. In addition, child-father controlling-caregiving attachment predicted the development of fewer externalizing behaviors. These results provide insight into the ways that insecure child-father and child-mother attachment predict later socioemotional adaptation.

This meta-analytic study examined the associations between child-father attachment in early childhood and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Based on 15 samples (N = 1,304 dyads), the association between child-father attachment insecurity and externalizing behaviors was significant and moderate in magnitude (r = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.27 or d = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.55). No moderators of this association were identified. Based on 12 samples (N = 1,073), the association between child-father attachment insecurity and internalizing behaviors was also significant, albeit smaller in magnitude (r = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.15; or d = 0.17, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.31). Between-study heterogeneity was insufficient to consider moderators. When compared to the effect sizes of prior meta-analyses on child-mother attachment and behavior problems, the quality of the attachment relationship with fathers yields a similar magnitude of associations to children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Results support the need to consider the role of the attachment network, which notably includes attachment relationships to both fathers and mothers, to understand how attachment relationships contribute to child development.

Mary Main’s operationalization of infant attachment disorganization contributed to our understanding of attachment and psychopathology. Her exploration of attachment patterns at age 6 with Jude Cassidy laid the foundations for studying attachment post-infancy. They found remarkable correspondence from age 1 to age 6 in the disorganization spectrum and documented the emergence of role-reversal. This study proposes a person-centered approach to explore classes of children with respect to attachment disorganization at four time points between infancy and late preschool. Participants (n = 205) were recruited in the UK and formed a socioeconomically diverse community sample of mother–child dyads. We identified three classes of children: 1) a stable organized group; 2) an unstable group becoming organized; and 3) an unstable group becoming disorganized. Results show that major loss predicts membership of the third class of children. These findings contribute to our understanding of disorganization across multiple periods, and thus to Mary Main’s legacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current meta-analysis examined the mediating role of sensitive-responsive parenting in the relationship between depression in mothers and internalizing and externalizing behavior in children. A systematic review of the path of maternal sensitive responsiveness to child psychopathology identified eligible studies. Meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM) allowed for the systematic examination of the magnitude of the indirect effect across 68 studies (N = 15,579) for internalizing and 92 studies (N = 26,218) for externalizing psychopathology. The synthesized sample included predominantly White, English-speaking children (age range = 1 to 205 months; Mage = 66 months; 47% female) from Western, industrialized countries. The indirect pathway was small in magnitude and similar for externalizing (b =.02) and internalizing psychopathology (b =.01). Moderator analyses found that the indirect pathway for externalizing problems was stronger when mother-child interactions were observed during naturalistic and free-play tasks rather than structured tasks. Other tested moderators were not significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensitive caregiving behavior, which involves the ability to notice, interpret, and quickly respond to a child's signals of need and/or interest, is a central determinant of secure child–caregiver attachment. Yet, significant heterogeneity in effect sizes exists across the literature, and sources of heterogeneity have yet to be explained. For all child–caregiver dyads, there was a significant and positive pooled association between caregiver sensitivity and parent–child attachment (r =.25, 95% CI [.22,.28], k = 174, 230 effect sizes, N = 22,914). We also found a positive association between maternal sensitivity and child attachment security (r =.26, 95% CI [.22,.29], k = 159, 202 effect sizes, N = 21,483), which was equivalent in magnitude to paternal sensitivity and child attachment security (r =.21, 95% CI [.14, 27], k = 22, 23 effect sizes, N = 1,626). Maternal sensitivity was also negatively associated with all three classifications of insecure attachment (avoidant: k = 43, r = −.24 [−.34, −.13]; resistant: k = 43, r = −.12 [−.19, −.06]; disorganized: k = 24, r = −.19 [−.27, −.11]). For maternal sensitivity, associations were larger in studies that used the Attachment Q-Sort (vs. the Strange Situation), used the Maternal Behavior Q-Sort (vs. Ainsworth or Emotional Availability Scales), had strong (vs. poor) interrater measurement reliability, had a longer observation of sensitivity, and had less time elapse between assessments. For paternal sensitivity, associations were larger in older (vs. younger) fathers and children. These findings confirm the importance of both maternal and paternal sensitivity for the development of child attachment security and add understanding of the methodological and substantive factors that allow this effect to be observed. Public Significance Statement: The quality of care children receive from caregivers can shape the foundations of a thriving society. Sensitive caregiver behavior involves the ability to notice, interpret, and quickly respond to a child's signals of need and/or interest. Findings from our research suggests that caregivers' sensitive behavior toward their child plays a pivotal role in fostering children's secure attachment. We found that associations were similar for both mothers and fathers. These findings stress the urgency of allocating resources and supports to enhance sensitive caregiver behavior, to in turn promote healthier child–parent relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Developmental research has traditionally focused on parenting behaviors such as nurturance and care, due to a focus on mothers' behaviors. Other parenting dimensions such as parental playfulness (i.e., use of creativity, imagination, and humor during parent--child interactions) have comparatively received little attention. Although some measures tap into parents' and children's playfulness, these measures are limited. Indeed, they do not assess multiple domains of playfulness (i.e., both parents' and the child's playfulness) or focus on one specific setting such as children's play with peers. Additionally, existing measures do not consider parents' reactions to their partners' playfulness. To address this gap, we created the Playful Parenting Style Questionnaire (PPSQ), which assesses three domains of playfulness: (a) parental domain, (b) child domain, and (c) partner domain. The current study is part of a validation effort of the PPSQ using a quantitative design. We aimed to explore the structure of the PPSQ by conducting an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for each domain of playfulness; and assess the construct validity of the PPSQ factors by examining the association between factors and existing measures of playful parenting, child playfulness, and co-parenting. Method: The sample includes 347 parents (294 mothers and 53 fathers) of preschool/school-age children (M = 5.10 years; 182 girls, 127 boys). Parents were mostly White (76%) and from a low socioeconomic risk background. Parents completed a series of online questionnaires including the PPSQ, 3 existing measures of parent playfulness (Parental Playfulness Questionnaire; Adult Playfulness Scale; Challenging Parenting Behavior Scale), 2 existing measures of child playfulness (Child Behavior Inventory; Children's Playfulness Scale), a coparenting instrument (Co-parenting Relationship Scale), and sociodemographic information. Results: The EFA revealed 4 factors for parental playfulness, 1 factor for child playfulness, and 3 factors for partner's playfulness. The construct validity analyses identified multiple associations indicating convergence with existing measures for the parent and partners domain but not the child factor. Discussion: This study allowed for a better understanding of the playful dynamics that occur within a family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensitivity in parent-child interaction is essential for child development. Since fathers are increasingly involved in childrearing, identifying factors leading to paternal sensitivity is crucial. We examined the relation between attachment representation and reflective functioning (RF) as factors influencing paternal sensitivity in a longitudinal study including N = 40 first-time fathers (Mage = 33) and their 6-month-old children. We used the Adult Attachment Interview during pregnancy to assess paternal attachment representation and general RF, the Parental Development Interview to assess fathers' parental RF, and the Emotional Availability Scale to measure sensitivity at child's age of 6 month. Data show that secure paternal attachment representation, high general and parental RF are associated with higher levels of paternal sensitivity. Further, parental RF mediates the association between attachment representation and paternal sensitivity. These findings contribute to the identification of a causal interplay in that they suggest an explanatory effect of RF on the association between fathers' attachment representation, and sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two meta-analyses were conducted (N = 10,980 child-father dyads) with 93 studies published between 1983-2020, primarily in North America and Europe, on observed parental sensitivity to children (3-180 months; 48% girls; 14% non-White) in partnered mothers and fathers. The first meta-analysis found higher maternal mean levels of observed sensitivity, with a small effect size (d = -.27). Differences between parents were larger with micro coding and triadic/family assessments. Differences narrowed as a function of publication year and were not significant in European samples. The second meta-analysis identified a moderate correlation between observed maternal and paternal sensitivity (r = .23 after adjusting for probable publication bias). Correlations were larger in Middle Eastern samples and with composite sensitivity scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This meta-analysis synthesized the distribution of attachment classifications as coded with the Cassidy-Marvin Preschool Attachment Coding System and the Main-Cassidy Six-Year-Old System. These systems have extended scholars' capacity to measure differences in the developing child-parent attachment relationship, and its sequelae, beyond the infancy period; however, the global distribution of the attachment categories in these systems, and the potential factors influencing this distribution, remain unknown. The meta-analysis included 97 samples (N = 8,186 children; 55% boys), mostly drawn from North American or European populations (89%; M = 76% White). Results indicated that the distribution of child-mother attachment was 53.5% secure, 14.0% avoidant, 11.0% ambivalent, and 21.5% disorganized/controlling. Moderator analyses showed that rates of security were lower, and rates of disorganization were higher, in samples of at-risk families, specifically when children were exposed to maltreatment. Variations in the procedure also moderated the distribution. The discussion calls for greater unity around methodological practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although numerous individual studies have attempted to link child–parent attachment and prosociality, a systematic picture of that relationship requires a meta-analytic approach that considers different dimensions of prosociality and potential moderators. The current meta-analysis examined 41 studies drawn primarily from North America and Europe and published between 1978 to 2020. Child age ranged from 12 to 53 months at the assessment of child–parent attachment and 12 to 108 months at the assessment of prosociality. Across 35 studies (100 effect sizes, N = 4,611), child–mother attachment security and child prosociality were significantly associated (r =.19, 95% CI [.14,.23]). No moderators were identified. Exploratory estimates were also derived for subtypes of child–mother attachment insecurity. Across six studies (eight effect sizes, N = 402), child–father attachment security was significantly associated with prosociality (r =.11, 95% CI [.02,.23]). The magnitude of effect sizes did not differ based on parent gender. The discussion considers areas of growth for attachment and prosociality research. Public Significance Statement: The nature by which we interact with one another—namely how we help and show kindness to others—is critical for a functional and prosperous society. This study examined child–parent attachment as a potential source of influence for the development of prosociality. Across 41 studies and over 4,000 children, we identified that when children form a secure attachment relationship to their mothers and fathers, they are more likely to behave prosocially toward others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meta‐analytic associations between observed parental sensitivity and child behavioral problems were examined (children aged 0–17 years). Studies (k = 108, N = 28,114) contained sociodemographically diverse samples, primarily from North America and Europe, reporting on parent‐child dyads (95% mothers; 54% boys). Sensitivity significantly related to internalizing (k = 69 studies; N = 14,729; r = −.08, 95% CI [−.12, −.05]) and externalizing (k = 94; N = 25,418; r = −.14, 95% CI [−.17, −.11]) problems, with stronger associations found for externalizing. For internalizing problems, associations were significantly stronger among samples with low socioeconomic status (SES) versus mid‐high SES, in peer‐reviewed versus unpublished dissertations, and in studies using composite versus single scale sensitivity measures. No other moderators emerged as significant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past meta-analyses show that both child-mother and child-father attachment insecurity are independently and jointly associated with more externalizing behaviors in children. Little is known, however, on the ways that different types of insecure attachment independently and jointly predict the development of externalizing behaviors over time. Existing work also neglects the impact of children's gender within the context of child-father relationships. The current study addresses these limitations by investigating how insecure type of child-father attachment, child-mother attachment, and their interaction in the preschool years predict boys' and girls' externalizing behaviors in middle childhood, when controlling for children's externalizing behaviors in the preschool years. The sample included 144 preschool-aged children (M = 46.89 months, SD = 8.77, 83 girls) and both of their parents. At Time 1, children completed independent separation-reunion procedures with each parent, which were coded using the Preschool Attachment Rating Scales. At Time 1 and Time 2 (5 years later), mothers and fathers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to report on their children's externalizing behaviors. Results showed no systematic differences in the way that child-mother and child-father attachment predicted the development of externalizing behaviors in boys and girls. Across all children, results identified an interaction of child-father and child-mother ambivalence, by which the presence of ambivalence toward both parents predicted the development of more externalizing behaviors. In addition, child-father con-trolling-caregiving attachment predicted the development of fewer externalizing behaviors. These results provide insight into the ways that insecure child-father and child-mother attachment predict later socio-emotional adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This meta‐analytic study examined the associations between child‐father attachment in early childhood and children's externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Based on 15 samples (N = 1,304 dyads), the association between child‐father attachment insecurity and externalizing behaviors was significant and moderate in magnitude (r = 0.18, 95% CI: 0.10, 0.27 or d = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.20, 0.55). No moderators of this association were identified. Based on 12 samples (N = 1,073), the association between child‐father attachment insecurity and internalizing behaviors was also significant, albeit smaller in magnitude (r = 0.09, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.15; or d = 0.17, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.31). Between‐study heterogeneity was insufficient to consider moderators. When compared to the effect sizes of prior meta‐analyses on child‐mother attachment and behavior problems, the quality of the attachment relationship with fathers yields a similar magnitude of associations to children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Results support the need to consider the role of the attachment network, which notably includes attachment relationships to both fathers and mothers, to understand how attachment relationships contribute to child development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This systematic review aimed to provide a narrative synthesis of associations between the early childhood (i.e., preschool and early school age) attachment classification systems and internalizing and externalizing symptoms measured from preschool age through adolescence. The review was pre-registered with PROSPERO (#CRD42017073417) and followed PRISMA guidelines. Of the 9,312 records screened, 34 articles comprising 15 samples were included in the review. Findings across studies suggest consistent associations between insecure early childhood attachment and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms during the preschool and school-age/middle childhood periods, with children classified as disorganized/controlling being at heightened risk. There is insufficient evidence to confirm associations with (pre)adolescent externalizing and internalizing symptoms. Future directions for research and clinical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported online in Psychology of Men & Masculinities on Mar 18 2021 (see record 2021-36794-001). In the article "The Interaction of Child-Father Attachment and Child-Mother Attachment in the Prediction of Observed Coparenting" by Jean-François Bureau, Audrey-Ann Deneault, Kim Yurkowski, Jodi Martin, Jeffry Quan, Sage Sezlik, and Camille Guérin-Marion (Psychology of Men & Masculinities, Advance online publication. July 30, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000309), the visual representation of interaction effects was erroneously the same in both Figure 2 and Figure 3. Figure 3 depicted the right values of simple slopes, but the wrong visual representation of them. All versions of this article have been corrected.] A number of studies have examined the role of coparenting relationships on the development of children's attachment to their mothers and fathers. However, previous research tends to interpret this link as unidirectional, thereby ignoring the possibility that, in reverse, child-parent attachment relationships could also predict the quality of the coparenting relationship. Furthermore, there is limited work examining how the child-father and the child-mother attachment relationships may interact to predict coparenting. In response to these limitations, the current study drew from an integrative family systems framework and observational measures to examine these possible relations in biparental heterosexual families. To assess child-parent attachment security, 144 preschool-aged children (83 girls; M = 46.89 months, SD = 8.77) completed independent separation-reunion procedures with their mother and father during counterbalanced laboratory visits. During a subsequent home visit, parents engaged in triadic play with their child, from which coparenting cooperation and competition were evaluated. Results showed that child-mother and child-father attachment security were not independent predictors of coparenting; rather, their interaction significantly predicted the quality of the coparenting relationship. In line with theoretical models calling for a family systems approach, study findings highlight the importance of considering the interactive effects of child-father and child-mother attachment relationships when examining family dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infants care for and are cared for by others from early in life, a fact reflected in infants' morality and attachment. According to moral core researchers, infants are born with a moral sense that allows them to care about and evaluate the actions of third parties. In attachment theory, care manifests through infants' relationships with caregivers, which forms representations called internal working models that shape how babies think, feel, and act. Although accumulating evidence supports the existence of a moral core directed toward others, nevertheless, without a notion of care connected to infants' own lives, the core is an incomplete and underpowered construct. We show how the moral core, like attachment, could emerge in first- and second-person working models that develop through social interaction and incorporate representational forms (embodied, social, cognitive, emotional, moral), which contribute to the emergence of third-person representations and give infants' moral sense its vitality and meaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing evidence points to the theoretical and statistical advantages of continuous (rather than categorical) assessments of child-caregiver attachment. The Preschool Attachment Rating Scales (PARS) is a continuous coding system to assess preschool attachment that is complementary to the categorical MacArthur Preschool Attachment Coding System (PACS). The current study aims to evaluate the reliability and validity of the PARS to measure both child-mother and child-father attachment during the preschool period. Participants included 144 preschool-aged children (M = 46.89 months, SD = 8.77; 83 girls) and their parents. Results support the reliability and validity of the PARS: good inter-rater reliability, expected associations between scales, convergence with the PACS, and association with parental sensitivity and child externalizing problems. These findings support the application of continuous assessments of child-caregiver attachment in the preschool years. They also align with previous work on child-mother attachment, and present avenues for future research on child-father attachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Given the negative relations between parental psychological control and various aspects of emerging adults' social and emotional adaptation, there is a need to determine whether similar relations exist for emerging adults' academic adjustment. The current study tested an integrative model using an interactionist approach of dyadic gender composition to test whether maternal and paternal psychological control are unique and interactive predictors of four different indicators of academic adjustment (i.e., academic achievement, satisfaction of academic achievement, academic goal progress, and school satisfaction) for male and female emerging adults, using fear of failure as a mediator. The sample comprised 1792 undergraduate students aged 17–25 years old (74.2% identified as females). The results showed that maternal and paternal psychological control interacted to predict students' fear of failure, and that fear of failure negatively predicted all indicators of academic adjustment. The results revealed small indirect mediation effects. For females, fear of failure mediated the relation between the interaction of psychological control and satisfaction of academic achievement. For males, fear of failure mediated the relation between the interaction of psychological control and academic goal progress. The results show that parents continue to play an important role in their children's lives during emerging adulthood, and provide insight on the mechanisms underlying such parental influence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although considerable research has sought to establish the influence of parent-child attachment on child socioemotional adaptation, it has primarily focused on mother-child dyads and external reports of adaptation. The current study investigates the longitudinal associations between both preschool mother-child and father-child attachment and self-reported socioemotional adaptation in middle childhood. Eighty-three children (47 girls) participated in separate lab visits with each parent at both Time 1 (3–5 years old) and Time 2 (7–11 years old). Results revealed that father-child attachment assessed with the MacArthur Preschool Attachment Coding System was uniquely related to child self-esteem, such that insecure children had significantly lower self-esteem scores than what was expected by chance. Children insecurely attached to their father also reported significantly higher externalizing problems than secure children, but this relationship was only significant if the child was also insecurely attached to their mother. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in fathers’ involvement in childrearing, particularly beyond infancy, warrants research exploring factors influencing the quality of child–father attachment relationships, and the impact of these relationships on children’s social development. The current investigation explored various correlates of preschoolers’ child–father attachment security to both parents, including contextual factors (i.e., socioeconomic status, child temperament, parenting stress), parental play sensitivity, and child social adaptation. Participants included 107 preschool-aged children (59 girls; M = 46.67 months, SD = 8.57) and their fathers and mothers. Results revealed that both mothers’ and fathers’ play sensitivity were associated with child attachment security after controlling for different contextual factors. Furthermore, the magnitude of the association between child conduct problems and child–father attachment insecurity was stronger than the corresponding association with child–mother attachment insecurity. Findings provide important information on caregiving factors associated with child–father attachment security in the preschool years and the importance of this bond to children’s social adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

With the aim of providing an estimate of the association between father and child internalizing symptoms, the present study systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed associations between father and child anxiety and depression symptoms from existing research (mostly from North America and Europe, conducted between 1981 and 2021). Based on 70 samples (158 effect sizes, N = 58,255), the meta-analysis with robust variance estimation identified a positive and significant association between depression in fathers and children (r =.15, 95% CI [.12,.17]). Similarly, a positive and significant association between father and child anxiety was observed (r =.13, 95% CI [.07,.18]) based on 39 samples (72 effect sizes, N = 11,683). The effect sizes for depression and anxiety did not significantly differ from one another or as a function of sample characteristics and methodological moderators. Findings show the importance of fathers in the development of child psychopathology. Directions for future research from a family systems perspective are proposed. Public Significance Statement: Depression and anxiety are prevalent mental health disorders among children and parents. The current meta-analysis examines if depression and anxiety in fathers are associated with the development of such symptoms in children. The results suggest a small-to-moderate association between father and child depression and anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) was developed five decades ago to assess infant–parent attachment relationships. Although the procedure itself has remained relatively constant in over 285 studies (20,720 dyads) conducted to date, there have been vast sociological changes during this time, and research foci shifts to studying diverse populations. Since its inception, the SSP has also been adopted in over 20 countries. In this meta-analysis, we collate this large body of work, with the objectives of producing reliable estimates of the distribution of the four SSP attachment classifications, assessing temporal trends and geographical differences, and determining if and when distributions are different across various populations. Results revealed that the global distribution of SSP attachment was 51.6% secure, 14.7% avoidant, 10.2% resistant, and 23.5% disorganized. There were no differences in the distribution among mothers and fathers, and no child age or sex differences. We found a temporal trend in which there was less avoidant attachment over time and there were attachment distribution differences between samples from North America versus other regions of the world, particularly Asia, Middle East/Israel and South America. We found higher rates of avoidant and disorganized attachment in populations with sociodemographic risks and higher rates of disorganized attachment in samples where parents had psychopathology and when the child experienced maltreatment or was adopted from foster or institutional care. The implications of these findings for future research and practice are discussed. Public Significance Statement: This meta-analysis suggests that, worldwide, one in every two infants develops a secure attachment relationship with their caregiver. Secure attachment is more likely to develop when fewer stressors are imposed on the parent–infant dyad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]