Search

Death is a phenomenon that humans regarded as being part of the cycle of life, contemplated, sought to identify, and defined since the inception of mankind. It has been believed that death does not mark the end of a person's life, and rather the deceased migrate to another world and continue to exist there. Burial rituals among humans within the framework of the belief in the afterlife have been effective in the emergence of various types of tombs. Different types of tombs that arose based on faith are essential documents that reflect the society's artistic taste, beliefs, and cultural level. With the headpieces, inscriptions, figures and object embellishments they display, they indicate the gender of the person buried in the tomb. While male gravestones include headpieces called headgears, female gravestones reflect the female soul with the gentler and decorated compositions of embellishments reflecting the artistic taste of their time. Mardin, which bears the traces of countless civilizations throughout thousands of years of history, was plundered and devastated many times as a result of wars and invasions and the tombs in the city were also affected by this, with no surviving samples apart from more recent ones. Certain examples of decorated female gravestones dated back to the late 19th century and early 20th century in the Muhammed Zırar (Dırar) cemetery in Mardin were evaluated within the framework of the discipline of Art History. The samples evaluated are female gravestones, and these were categorized into three as those displaying shahides, cists and pehle stones.The evaluated samples' similarities and differences with other samples from the region and around the country are discussed in terms of material, form, technical, and decorative aspects. The samples reviewed in the conclusion section have been found to have similar structural and aesthetic qualities to tombstones found in locations such as Cizre, Savur, Nusaybin, and Siirt., Ölüm, insanoğlunun var olduğu andan itibaren yaşam döngüsünden ayırmadığı, kafa yorduğu, tanımaya ve tanımlamaya çalıştığı bir olgudur. Ölümün bir son olmadığı, ölen bireyin bu dünyadan ayrılarak başka bir aleme göç ettiğine, o alemde yaşamaya devam ettiğine inanılmıştır. Öteki dünya anlayışıyla birlikte insanlardaki ölüyü gömme ritüelleri birbirinden farklı mezar çeşitlerinin ortaya çıkmasında etkili olmuştur. İnanca bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan mezar çeşitleri ait oldukları toplumun sanat zevkini, inancını ve kültür düzeyini yansıtan önemli belgelerdir. Üzerlerinde ihtiva ettikleri başlık, yazı, figür ve nesneli bezemeleriyle yatanın cinsiyetini belirtir özelliktedirler. Erkek mezar taşlarında serpuş denilen başlık yer alırken, kadın mezar taşları daha zarif, süslü ve dönemin sanat zevkini yansıtan yoğun süsleme kompozisyonlarıyla kadının ruhunu yansıtır özelliktedirler. Binlerce yıllık geçmişi ve sayısız uygarlığın izini taşıyan Mardin, savaş ve istilalar sonucu birçok kez yakılıp, yıkılmış, mezar taşları da bu olumsuzluklardan nasibini almış ve günümüze yakın tarihli örnekler dışında gelen örnek olmamıştır. Mardin’de Muhammed Zırar (Dırar) mezarlığında 19. yüzyıl sonu ile 20. yüzyılın başına tarihlenen bezemeli kadın mezar taşlarından birkaç örnek Sanat Tarihi disiplini çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Değerlendirilmeye alınan örnekler kadın mezar taşları olup, şahideli, sandukalı ve pehle taşlı olmak üzere üç grupta tanıtılmıştır. Ele alınan örneklerin malzeme, form, teknik ve süsleme özellikleri bakımından bölge ve yurt genelindeki örneklerle benzer ve ayrılan yönlerine değinilmiştir. Sonuç kısmında ele alınan örneklerin Cizre, Savur, Nusaybin, Siirt gibi merkezlerde yer alan mezar taşlarıyla benzer form ve süsleme özelliklerine sahip oldukları tespit edilmiştir.

Wupatki National Monument archaeologists recently recovered artifacts from an exposed cist that were about to fall into a newly formed wash due to intensified downpours related to climate change. Monument staff worked with traditionally associated tribes to create an emergency excavation plan and a contingency for the reburial of cist contents should human remains be encountered. When no human remains were found, the Wupatki curator accessioned and cataloged the cist contents which included seven intact prehistoric pots. Because intact pottery is seldom found outside of a burial context, the monument and its Friend’s Group sought to place the items on display. However, when the Wupatki curator consulted with Hopi elders about the cist contents for the exhibit, she learned that what archaeologists thought to be a “pot cache” was something else entirely. The article discusses the events that led to the eventual “accession by mistake” process, the reburial of the cist contents, and the resulting lessons learned.

Recent analysis of Early Bronze Age human remains from Staarvey Farm on the Isle of Man has revealed a rare bone knife pommel and 20 other bone objects, offering insight into the importance of bone ornaments and artefact fittings at this time. This article adopts a relational typological approach to analyse the Staarvey burial and comparable assemblages, identifying patterns in the deposition of knife pommels in central and southern Britain. In exploring regional interaction in Early Bronze Age Britain and Ireland, the authors refine and move beyond traditional typologies to trace types of both objects and practice. This approach allows them to consider multiple, overlapping spheres of funerary practice and their relation to identities at different regional scales.

Stone cist graves dating to the Bronze Age through to the late medieval period are well attested across Western Europe. In the Americas, such cist graves are found only on the island of Saba in the Dutch Caribbean. First starting in the colonial period, this funerary practice continues on Saba to the present day, representing a cultural continuity with rural seventeenth-century populations—probably settlers from the British Isles. This article discusses the recent excavation of several cist burials on Saba, their structural forms and their relevance for understanding cultural continuity in the Caribbean of the historical period.

The presented study focuses on the role of applied ethics(cist) in managing the quality of life in the post-risk society. Given that, from an ethical point of view, it is appropriate to reflect the quality of life also through other than quantitative, i.e. objective and therefore also measurable indicator, it is important to be also focused on the action of a person that leads to increasing his/her satisfaction, the feeling of happiness as a subjective indicator. The aim of this study is to point out the importance of ethical parameterization of the quality of life as well as the search for suitable concepts in its fulfilment.

Excavations by Chichester and District Archaeology Society on the site of a Roman villa at Warblington, near Emsworth, Hampshire, revealed a small stone cist containing two lead packages. While interpretation as a burial is explored, it appears more likely that the cist and its contents represent a ritual deposit within a domestic structure.

Compressive sensing (CS) has been widely utilized in inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging, since ISAR measured data are generally non-completed in cross-range direction, and CS-based imaging methods can obtain high-quality imaging results using under-sampled data. However, the traditional CS-based methods need to pre-define parameters and sparse transforms, which are tough to be hand-crafted. Besides, these methods usually require heavy computational cost with large matrices operation. In this paper, inspired by the adaptive parameter learning and rapidly reconstruction of convolution neural network (CNN), a novel imaging method, called convolution iterative shrinkage-thresholding (CIST) network, is proposed for ISAR efficient sparse imaging. CIST is capable of learning optimal parameters and sparse transforms throughout the CNN training process, instead of being manually defined. Specifically, CIST replaces the linear sparse transform with non-linear convolution operations. This new transform and essential parameters are learnable end-to-end across the iterations, which increases the flexibility and robustness of CIST. When compared with the traditional state-of-the-art CS imaging methods, both simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed CIST-based ISAR imaging method can obtain imaging results of high quality, while maintaining high computational efficiency. CIST-based ISAR imaging is tens of times faster than other methods.

Among the important antiquities of Altai Bronze Age, Karakol burial site (dated to the beginning of the 2nd mill. BCE) can be selected. The images are overlapped; the ones synchronous to the burial ritual were performed in a complex technique, including painting, pecking, engraving, and abrasion. Studies at the National Research Centre “Kurchatov Institute” (NRC KI), including scanning electron microscopy combined with X-ray microanalysis and powder X-ray diffraction on the Belok station (Kurchatov synchrotron radiation source (KSRS)), revealed that red (ochres of different hues) and black (soot) pigments were used to to produce paint at the Karakol site. An analysis of the red paints showed their composition to be homogeneous within one burial but differ from burial to burial. An analysis of the colored line on slab 1 (Karakol, burial 3, mound 2) made it possible to establish its natural origin and reasonably reject the hypothesis that it was painted.

Human sacrifice has long been associated with the rise of hierarchical centralised societies. Recent excavation of a large cist tomb at third-millennium BC Basur Hoyuk, in Turkey, shows that state formation in Mesopotamia was accompanied by a fundamental change in the value of human life within local ritual economy. Osteological analysis and study of the grave goods have identified some of the dead as human sacrifices. This was indeed a retainer burial, reflecting the emergence of stratified society at a time of instability and crisis.

AOC Archaeology Group undertook the excavation of a previously unknown Bronze Age cist, located in a field close to Kilkeddan Farm, Argyll & Bute, during September 2005 under the Historic Scotland call-off contract for human remains. The cist was found to contain poorly surviving unburnt human skeletal remains along with a finely decorated tripartite Food Vessel and a flint knife. The incomplete and fragmentary condition of the skeleton suggests that the human remains were disarticulated at the time of deposition. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the human bone and associated charcoal confirms an early Bronze Age date for the burial.

During the final centuries of the 3rd millennium BCE (Early Bronze Age IV) a new burial form, the stone-built cist-grave, appears in the southern Levant. This burial type is believed to have its origins in the northern Levant, along the Euphrates. Until recently, only a few examples of this burial tradition were known in the southern Levant, with most examples identified in either the Jordan Valley or along the Wadi Zerqa. However, analysis of Petrie's tomb records from Tell el-‘Ajjul revealed a number of new examples of this burial type, shedding new light upon this enigmatic burial tradition in the southern Levant and the closing stages of the 3rd millennium BCE.

A new stirred tank geometry, the confined impeller stirred tank (CIST), was designed to provide repeatable testing of the effect of mixing on the performance of chemical additives at the bench scale. The CIST ( T = 0.076 m, H = 3 T ) is filled with five or six impellers. Three impeller geometries were tested: A310, Rushton and Intermig. This paper presents the following hydrodynamic characteristics of the CIST: power number, flow number, momentum number, velocity profiles at different locations in the tank and the transition point from fully turbulent to transitional flow. Based on the scaled velocity profiles, the CIST was able to keep the flow turbulent at Re ɛ max / ɛ average was lower for the CIST than for a conventional stirred tank, indicating that the energy dissipation is more uniformly distributed in the CIST. The CIST consistently maintains turbulent flow down to a Reynolds number 10× smaller than that needed in a conventional stirred tank.

L’ancien français possède deux démonstratifs: cist et cil, traditionnellement considérés comme proche-lointain. Je réexamine ici cette opposition dans le champ textuel sous un angle fonctionnel, utilisant la catégorisation de Himmelmann (1996). J’ai observé une distribution complémentaire entre le déterminant démonstratif cil, fortement corrélé à la reprise fidèle ou non fidèle, et le déterminant cist lié à la deixis textuelle. Cil dans l’emploi de reprise assure la cohésion du texte, renforçant le réseau thématique et le cadre spatio-temporel de celui-ci. De plus, en résumant de larges unités du texte précédent, cil contribue à l’élaboration de la “macro-structure”, décrite dans le modèle d’analyse du discours de van Dijk and Kintsch (1983). Cist peut lui être considéré comme metadiscursif. En deixis textuelle, il assure la désignation des parties du texte, et permet la délimitation d’un discours rapporté. En référant ainsi au texte en tant que “super-structure”, cist aide le lecteur à s’orienter dans le récit. Assurant respectivement cohésion et différenciation, cil et cist jouent un rôle important dans le processus de compréhension du discours et la grammaire textuelle.

Aerial photography and excavations have brought to notice a major prehistoric ceremonial complex in central Scotland comparable to Stonehenge, although largely built in earth and timber. Beginning, like Stonehenge, as a cremation cemetery, it launched its monumentality by means of an immense circle of tree trunks, and developed it with smaller circles of posts and an earth bank (henge). A change of political mood in the Early Bronze Age is marked by one of Scotland's best preserved dagger-burials in a stone cist with an engraved lid. The perishable (or reusable) materials meant that this great centre lay for millennia under ploughed fields, until it was adopted, by design or by chance, as a centre of the Pictish kings.

Background: Cumulative interceptive supportive therapy (CIST) is currently used as a guideline for treating peri-implant diseases. The objectives of this study were to determine the detection rate and measure the number of periodontopathic bacteria in lesions of different CIST levels and thereby characterize peri-implant disease from a bacteriological viewpoint. Methods: This study included 105 patients who had both residual natural teeth and implants with peri-implant disease. A total of 105 implants were divided into levels A, B, C and D according to the CIST classification. Bacterial samples were collected from peri-implant pockets and four periodontopathic bacteria were measured by PCR and PCR-Invader assay. Results: The number of periodontopathic bacteria increased in line with CIST level, and the detection rate was also associated with CIST level. However, no difference was found in the bacterial detection rate of P. gingivalis and T. denticola between CIST-B and CIST-C. There was a higher detection rate of all periodontopathic bacteria for CIST-D. Conclusions: The number of periodontopathic bacteria and detection rate increased as peri-implant disease advanced. However, there were no major differences in the detection rate between CIST-B and CIST-C. On the other hand, a higher detection rate of periodontopathic bacteria was seen for CIST-D.

The effect of three grass leaf height treatments (50 mm, 25 mm

The famous monumental Bronze Age cairn Bredarör on Kivik with its decorated stone coffin or cist has been described as a ‘pyramid of the north’. Situating his work as the latest stage in a long history of interpretation that began in the eighteenth century, the author analyses the human bone that survived from the 1930s excavation and shows that the cist and chamber must have remained open to receive burials over a period of 600 years.

Funeral pyres identified at a fourth-century BC cemetery on Thasos have produced a range of plants. The authors show that strongly represented among them are pomegranate, garlic and grape, as well as bread – foodstuffs for funeral feasts and with significance for religious practice.

In May 2001, Glasgow University Archaeological Research Division (GUARD) undertook an archaeological excavation at Swainbost, Isle of Lewis, under the provisions of the Historic Scotland Human Remains Call Off Contract, following the discovery of the partial remains of a coastally-eroded in-situ human burial. The remains were found to be from one individual, probably male, aged between 30 and 34 years at death with a slight deformity of the spine buried in a supine position in a flat-based grave. Several flat slabs present in the vicinity may have been the remains of a cist. An iron artefact, identified as a belt buckle, was recovered adjacent to the right side of the pelvis. A single radiocarbon date suggests the burial dates to 390–170 BC.

Excavations at Kavousi Vronda, Crete, recovered 107 intrusive Early Iron Age burials within the abandoned Late Minoan IIIC town. Of these, three were secondary cremation burials in amphoras deposited in stone cist graves that also contained multiple primary cremation burials. The small quantity of bone in each amphora and the recurrence of skeletal elements (bones from the cranium and right forearm) suggest that these burials represent the deliberate selection of particular skeletal parts that may have been transported to the communal graves at Vronda. The author explores the possible significance of these token burials within the larger context of funerary ritual and the representation of the dead.

The Kenchreai Cemetery Project (KCP) comprises an interdisciplinary archaeological research team that is exploring a major cemetery of Roman date in southern Greece. The cemetery is located on the Koutsongila Ridge just north of the ancient harbour of Kenchreai, the prosperous eastern port of Corinth. Surface remains that have been visible for centuries or exposed by looting include chamber tombs, cist graves and architecture. In 2004 KCP conducted geological and geophysical investigations to reconstruct the natural and settled landscape where ancient residents buried their dead. Geological study of the ridge and its vicinity has determined that the tombs are situated within a geologic unit particularly well suited for rock-cut construction, and that tombs were intentionally cut into the bedrock so that the vaulted roofs corresponded with a particularly resistant calcareous horizon (caliche), which provided a stable ceiling for the subterranean chambers. Moreover, several metres of coastline have eroded into the Saronic Gulf since antiquity. A systematic geophysical survey using electromagnetic, magnetic, ground-penetrating radar and gravity techniques was also carried out to map uncovered remains and to correlate visible with subsurface features. Several anomalies were identified that might represent previously unknown large structures and burial sites in the central and southern areas of the ridge. In addition, experimental tests using GPR and micro-gravitometry demonstrated the efficacy of these methods for surveying rock-cut tombs. The combined results of geological and geophysical investigation provide valuable information concerning local resource exploitation, structural distribution, and environmental change. These investigations model an innovative approach to the study of mortuary landscapes. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The resurgence of extreme right parties gained its first sudden and dramatic momentum when the Front National (FN), led by Jean Marie LePen, scored 11.2 percent in the 1984 European elections. This took many by surprise, including political and social scientists, most of whom at the time had expected rightist extremism to dissi pate altogether. Indeed, until the mid-1980s, the organized extreme right remained completely marginalized in Europe, enjoyed little political support, and performed poorly in elections, with the noted exception of the sustained, albeit small-scale presence of the neofas cist Movimento Sociale Italiana (MSI), which was mostly viewed as just another peculiarity of postwar Italian politics. Even more surpris ingly, however, LePen's breakthrough reflected not just a single inci dent but rather a more general watershed: a lasting upsurge of the extreme right all over Europe that reached its first peak with some dramatic electoral gains in the early 1990s, accompanied by a wave of anti-immigrant violence. Since then, several political parties have

New survey in the Chitral Valley has doubled the number of recorded Gandharan Grave culture sites in the region and extended their geographical range. The numbers and location of sites indicates that the Gandharan Grave culture was well established in the Chitral valley, suggesting that the valley may have been central to this cultural development, rather than marginal.

From archaeological and textual perspectives, scholars Israel Finkelstein and Baruch Halpern respectively have argued for systemic changes in Judahite society brought about by the Assyrian invasions of the late eighth century BCE, changes involving the growth of the state and increase in the role of the individual. Will a scrutiny of Judahite interments reveal these abrupt societal changes or will they tell a different story, one of evolution rather than revolution?

Soil samples from a late Neolithic stone cist in Hamneda, southern Sweden, were pollen analysed. The results of the analysis suggest that the local vegetation at the time of the burial was a half-open woodland with pasture and small-scale cereal growing, intermingled with stands ofTilia (lime),Quercus (oak) andCorylus (hazel). The analysis also gives unique information on the burial ritual. High pollen percentages ofHordeum type,Triticum type and undifferentiated Cerealia from among the shards of a pot deposited in the cist show that the pot originally contained cereal grains, bread, porridge, gruel or beer. Furthermore, the analysis shows that flowers ofAnemone nemorosa were deposited on or beneath the dead body in the cist.

The infant forms an ambiguous class of individual, located on the periphery of normal lifecycle events. This is often reflected in the character and choice of burial location. During the Historic period in Ireland the separate burial of unbaptised infants reused earlier monuments, particularly those with Early Christian associations. These cillini (children's burial grounds) were frequently situated in marginal locations and their identification with the host site often enhanced their ambiguous and liminal character. A review of the prehistoric evidence also suggests the differential treatment of infants during the Neolithic-Early Bronze Age, in particular the location of infant burials in the passages of two later Neolithic sites at Fourknocks, Co. Meath. The reuse of earlier megaliths for infant burials may reflect the reinvention of these sites in the contemporary mythological landscape at a latter stage in their own monumental lifecycle.

An Iron Age (megalithic) skull recovered from a cist burial complex at Agripalle, Andhra Pradesh, India, exhibits extensive erosion of the calvarium, areas of sclerotic diploe, irregular osteitic and periosteitic lesions, and deep ulcerations with a granulomatous appearance of nodular foci due to bone remodeling. These lesions are found over the entire surface, but are less severe in the temporal region and in the occipital region below lambda. There is extensive ulceration and destruction of the orbital roof and the nasopalatine region. A thick bony mass representing a healed lesion is present on the nasal margin. Comparison with the pathologic skeletal series of Ortner and Putschar (( 19811 Smithson. Contrib. Anthropol. 28:180-218), Steinbock ((19761 Paleopathology: Diagnosis and Interpretation, pp. 86-169), and Calvin (( 19641 Bones and Disease: Evidence of Disease and Abnormality in Early Man) indicates that these findings warrant a diagnosis of an advanced stage of treponematosis. The material from Agripalle, together with similar specimens recovered from the sites of Bhimbetka (Iron Age) and Inamgaon (Chalcolithic), furnish additional evidence supporting the hypothesis of the prehistoric antiquity of treponemal disease in both the New and Old Worlds. o 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The excavation of an Early Bronze Age cist cemetery at West Water Reservoir in south-east Scotland led to the discovery of a unique two-strand necklace of lead and cannel coal beads, placed around the neck of a small child. The lead beads are totally mineralized into cerussite (lead carbonate, PbCO3) and pyromorphite (lead phosphate chloride, Pb5(PO4)3Cl), a corrosion product not previously discussed in the conservation literature. The beads also represent the earliest known use of metallic lead in Britain and Ireland. The recovery and analysis of this necklace is described, as well as its consolidation and preparation for display.

In the Kumaun region of Uttar Pradesh, India, on the southern slopes of the Himalaya are cist burials, as well as megalithic monuments. Radiocarbon dates from the cists now hint at their going back to the 3rd millennium BC, and linguistic affinities would associate them with early Indo-European migrations into the western and central Himalaya regions.

Excavation of an Early Bronze Age cist cemetery at West Water Reservoir, Peeblesshire, has uncovered a unique two-strand necklace, with one string of cannel coal disc beads and another of lead beads, buried around the neck of a young child. This is the earliest evidence for the use of metallic lead in Britain and Ireland.

Anthemion stelae of the Archaic and Early Classical periods-tall gravestones crowred by volute-palmette designs-are found at many sites in Greece and western Asia Minor. This article presents five previously unpublished fragments from Sardis in Lydia and two gravestones discovered in 1912 but never thoroughly described, bringing to at least 10 the total number of such stelae found at Sardis. Most of these are only fragments, and none bears any trace of figural decoration. The anthemion stelae from Sardis nevertheless include some objects of superlative craftsmanship, and they help to illuminate relations between Lydia and neighboring regions in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.* In 1912, the first American expedition to Sardis, directed by H.C. Butler of Princeton University, discovered two limestone anthemion stelae still standing in front of a rock-cut tomb (Tomb 813) in the Great Necropolis on the west bank of the Pactolus stream.' To date, these stelae are the only two such gravestones ever found in situ at Sardis. Since 1912, however, stray or reused fragments of the finials of at least eight more anthemion stelae have come to light, making Sardis an unusually rich source of these monuments.2 In addition to the limestone stelae from Tomb 813, the first Sardis Expedition also found a single fragment of another anthemion stele, made of marble. The provenience of this fragment is uncertain; it was published in the volume devoted to the Sanctuary of Artemis just across the Pactolus stream from the Great Necropolis.3 Between 1958 and 1975, the second and ongoing Sardis Expedition, sponsored by Harvard and Cornell Universities, recovered fragments of another four sixthor fifthcentury anthemion stelae, all of marble.4 One of these was found reused in a Roman wall in the Bath/Gymnasium complex on the edge of the Hermus River plain. The other three were stray finds from the valley of the Pactolus, two discovered near well-known clusters of Lydian rock-cut tombs, and a third found during the construction of the excavation house next to the Sanctuary of Artemis. Since 1975, fragments of three or four more marble anthemion stelae have been recovered, one, whose identification is uncertain, from a field east of the Bath/Gymnasium complex, two from the excavation of a group of Late Roman houses south of the same complex (across the Izmir-Ankara highway), and a fourth from new excavations in the compound of the Sardis Expedition's excavation house. The function-as gravestones-of the stelae discovered in the various cemeteries of Sardis is clear.5 It is conceivable that the fragments of anthemion finials found near the Sanctuary of Artemis (for example, at the site of the current excavation house) crowned votive stelae, but as this sanctuary lies just across the Pactolus stream from the Great Necropolis, and lesser cemeteries are located on the same (west) side of the stream both to the north and to the south, it is likely that these too are fragments of * This article is based on research conducted under the auspices of the Sardis Expedition, and I am grateful to the Expedition's field director, C.H. Greenewalt, jr., both for permission to work on this subject, and for his advice and encouragement. My thanks are also due to Catherine S. Alexander, who made the reconstruction drawings of the stelae published here, and to R.R.R. Smith and the anonymous AJA reviewers, all of whom made many helpful criticisms and suggestions. The following abbreviations are used in this article: SardisRep 2 G.M.A. Hanfmann and N.H. Ramage, Sculpture from Sardis (SardisRep 2, Cambridge, Mass. 1978). Samos XI B. Freyer-Schauenberg, Sanmos XI: Bildwerke der archaischen Zeit und des strengen Stils (Bonn 1974). Published anew as 3a and 3b below; see bibliographical references listed in catalogue entry. The Great Necropolis is a cemetery containing over 1,000 tombs. 2 I exclude from consideration three anthemion stelae of late fifthor fourth-century date, published in SardisRep 2 as nos. 240-42. For the intriguing but unsubstantiated suggestion that the Borgia stele, reportedly discovered in situ in front of a tomb, was found at Sardis, see SardisRep 2, 23, n. 86. H.C. Butler, Sardis II: Architecture, Pt. 1: The Temple of Artemis (Leiden 1925) 80, ill. 93. The fragment was published in this volume because of its resemblance to pieces of architectural ornament found in the Sanctuary of Artemis; its provenience is not specified, however, and it is quite possible it was found somewhere else. Published anew as SardisRep 2, no. 48. 4 SardisRep 2, 23-28, 73-76, nos. 45-46, 49. The fourth, unpublished until now, is our fragment 4. 5 On the cemeteries of Lydian Sardis in general, see B.K. McLauchlin, Lydian Graves and Burial Customs (Diss. Univ. of California, Berkeley 1985) 11-78. 593 American Journal of Archaeology 98 (1994) 593-607 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.149 on Wed, 28 Sep 2016 04:44:23 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 594 CHRISTOPHER RATTE [AJA 98 Fig. 1. Anthemion stele fragments: a) no. 4 (left); b) no. 1, side A (upper right); and c) no. 3a, fragment of finial (lower right) gravestones, reused in one way or another in the sanctuary.6 Of the fragments found in the vicinity of the Roman Bath/Gymnasium complex, one bears a Lydian inscription that identifies it as a gravestone.7 The location of the cemetery where this gravestone originally stood is uncertain. There is evidence or at least reason for arguing for the presence of cemeteries on almost every side of the Bath/Gymnasium complex, and a small fragment such as this one could in any case have traveled a considerable distance.8 While the other fragments from this area are probably fragments of gravestones as well, an Archaic and Classical sanctuary of Cybele may have been located nearby, and the possibility that these are fragments of v tiv stelae cannot be entirely exclud d, although none of he identifiably votive stel e found at Sardis is of the anthemion type.9 Although the stel e from Tomb 813 are the only Lydian anthemion stelae ever found in context, it is likely that most or all of the other known fragments were also associat d with rock-cut tombs, as opposed to umuli.10 Most of these other fragments come from the Pactolus valley, an area where few tumuli are known, but which is in Butler's phrase "honeycombed" with rock-cut tombs; and the few grave markers that have been found in direct association with tumuli are of a different form, knob-like "phalloi" instead of stelae." 6 In western Asia Minor and East Greece, anthemion stelae are definitely attested, by provenience or by inscriptions, as gravestones both at Sardis (the stelae from Tomb 813 and the inscribed example discussed below) and elsewhere, e.g., Samos (Samos XI, nos. 89-90, with inscriptions; nos. 89-95, 99, from the "west necropolis"). SardisRep 2, no. 49; here fig. 14c. s To the south lies the acropolis of Sardis, whose west face contains many small cemeteries; to the east and west lies the modern Izmir-Ankara highway, which apparently follows the route of the ancient road through Sardis. Nearby is a monumental structure that appears to be the Archaic gate of the city, and a cemetery just outside it would not be surprising. At the time of writing, however, it is still uncertain whether the Archaic city lay on the east or west side of the gate. See C.H. Greenewalt, jr., et al., "The Sardis Campaigns of 1988 and 1989," AASOR 51 (1994) 14-26, for the most recent report on the excavation of this monument. 9 See G.M.A. Hanfmann, Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times (Cambridge, Mass. 1983) 74. 10 It is also possible that some of these st lae were associated with ore modest types of tombs, uch as cist graves or sarc phagus burials; on Lydian tomb types, see McLauchlin (supra n. 5) 11-13. 1 Se generally McLauchlin (supra n. 5) 126-39. Most famous is the huge marker still extant on the summit of the tomb of Alyattes; see C.H. Greenewalt, jr., et al., "The Sardis Campaign of 1983," BASOR Suppl. 24 (1986) 2022. In 1993, a "phallus marker" was disc vered (by Rose Lou and Ugur Bengisu, unpublished) on top of a tumulus tomb, probably of the Persian p riod, in the Cayster River valley. The context of the "stele and memorial of Tos" mentioned by Hipponax is unknown; see E. Degani ed., Hipponactis testimonia et fragmenta (Leipzig 1983) 30-32, fr. 7; J. Pedley, Ancient Literary Sources on Sardis (SardisMon 2, Cambridge, Mass. 1972) 77, no. 280; McLauchlin (supra n. 5) 45-48. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.149 on Wed, 28 Sep 2016 04:44:23 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 1994] ANTHEMION STELAE FROM SARDIS 595

Introduction A Bronze Age monumental cairn situated at Selkakangas in Viikkala (Nakkila county) in the Satakunta region of western Finland was excavated in 1978-1981 by the Department of Archaeology of the University of Turku (Fig. 1). The cairn was poor in finds: only burnt bone and unburnt cattle teeth were recovered. Burnt bones were analysed and demonstrated to be human in origin (Vormisto 1985, 151 ff.). At the time of the excavations no finds that could date the structure were found, nor was enough organic material obtainable for radiocarbon-dating methods available at that time. During the excavations cattle teeth were interpreted as modern, it was believed that Bronze Age unburnt bone could not have survived in the acid soil of Finland (Kuokkanen & Korkeakoski-Vaisanen 1985; Vormisto 1985, 151 f.). However, the large size of the cairn, the presence of a stone slab cist and the height (30 m) above modern sea level all showed dating to the Early Bronze Age (Salo 1981, 176; Kuokkanen & Korkeakoski-Vaisanen 1985, 10, 15 f.). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] New research and new research methods opened further possibilities for investigating the Selkakangas cairn. In 2010 one of the cattle teeth was radiocarbon dated and shown to date to the Early Bronze Age (3086 [+ or -] 30 BP, 1430-1270 cal BC, Hela 2496) (Blauer & Kantanen 2013). This is the oldest radiocarbon dated cattle bone found in mainland Finland to date. As radiocarbon dating of burnt bone became possible, the cremations were also dated. The living conditions and environment of the cattle in Bronze Age Satakunta were studied using isotopic analyses. This article presents new results from the Selkakangas cairn and these are discussed in the context of general Bronze Age ritu al and economy. Bronze Age economy To date only one radiocarbon-dated Stone Age domestic animal bone has been found from the Finnish mainland--a sheep or goat bone from a Late Neolithic Kiukainen culture site in Pietarsaari (3679 [+ or -] 33 BP, 2200-1950 cal BC, Ua-43043) (Blauer & Kantanen 2013). In Aland the oldest dated domestic animal bone dates to approximately the same Late Neolithic period, ca 2000 cal BC (Stora 2000, 70 f.). The signs of the earliest agriculture in Satakunta area date to the late Stone Age (Vuorela 1991, 8 ff.; Vuorela & Hicks 1996), when the first cultivated clearings emerged. The very first signs of cereal cultivation visible in the pollen record in the Satakunta area are from Harjavalta 3480 [+ or -] 90 BP (1920-1700 cal BC, Hel-2404) and Huittinen (1700-1800 cal BC, Hel-357), where the soil was suitable for primitive cultivation (Vuorela 1991, 17 ff.). However, even if sporadic cultivation and one domestic animal bone are associated with Kiukainen culture, site location and faunal analyses indicate increasing reliance on marine resources and especially seal hunting (Zvelebil 1981, 160; Edgren 1998, 112; Blauer & Kantanen 2013). The following Bronze Age coastal culture seems to be connected both to sea and land. On the one hand, the location of the cairns and cultural connections are sea-oriented and seal hunting still seemed to be an important part of subsistence (Tuovinen 2002, 273 f.; Blauer & Kantanen 2013). On the other hand, this is the period when the first definite signs of cattle and permanent field cultivation emerge and cultivation became a more prominent part of subsistence than before (Holmblad 2010, 159; Blauer & Kantanen 2013). Early Metal period settlement sites in Finland often seem to include either domestic animal bones or seal bones (Blauer & Kantanen 2013). Perhaps there were separate sites for sealing and animal husbandry used by a single population, indicating different environmental requirements for sealing and animal husbandry. However, the presence of two different cultural groups with different subsistence strategies during this period cannot be excluded, as local cultural change has been connected with immigrants from Scandinavian Bronze Age culture (see below). …