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Successfully retrieving information protects it against later forgetting. Failed retrieval attempts are also beneficial if followed by study of corrective feedback. To explain both of these findings, researchers have proposed the "mediation hypothesis." In the case of learning from corrective feedback, initial errors may serve as mediators, becoming associated with the corrective information and assisting with recall of that information during later retrieval attempts. A simple prediction follows: reminding learners of their initial errors should improve their recall of the corrections. We tested this prediction with a set of 3 experiments. In Experiment 1, participants learned cue-target word pairs (e.g., "cactus-point") by reading or by incorrectly guessing target words before viewing corrective feedback. Immediately afterward, participants were equally good at recalling targets from the cue alone, the cue plus their own guess, or the cue plus a guess made by another participant. Experiment 2 produced similar results when the retention test was delayed by 24 hr. In Experiment 3, participants instead learned word triplets having a mediational relationship through preexisting associations (e.g., "film-star-galaxy"). Here, reminding participants of a genuine mediator greatly improved target recall, supporting the validity of our cueing procedure.

Review is often more effective when it involves deliberate memory retrieval. However, this advantage may depend on a high rate of retrieval success; students who are less capable with the material may be better served by another activity. In our study, year 9 geography students listened to factual information, then reviewed some of it with a retrieval practice and feedback activity, some with a reading activity and left some unreviewed. We also manipulated the presence of hints during review--hints can affect the rate of retrieval success during practice and are relatively easy for teachers to provide. When tested 1 week later, most students showed a benefit of retrieval practice, even those who had performed poorly during review. There was also some evidence that hints improved learning when they made retrieval practice easier. Our findings suggest that retrieval practice, properly implemented, is advantageous for students of all ability levels.

Purpose: The present study investigated whether or not the benefits of interleaving of exemplars from several categories vary with retention interval in inductive learning. Methodology: Two experiments were conducted using paintings (Experiment 1) and textual materials (Experiment 2), and the experiments used a mixed factorial design. Forty students participated in each experiment for course credit. In each experiment, participants studied a series of exemplars from several categories which were presented massed and interleaved, and later their induction was tested either shortly after the study phase (short-term retention) or after a week's delay (long- term retention). Findings: Consistent with findings from previous studies, the interleaving effect was found in the short-term retention condition, and crucially, the present study provided the initial evidence that interleaving of exemplars also affected long-term retention. Interestingly, massing was judged to be more effective than spacing (interleaving) in most groups, even when actual performance showed the opposite. Significance: The present study shows that interleaved exemplars have considerable potential in improving inductive learning in the long term. For example, induction is used in case-based reasoning which requires one to start with learning from specific cases, and then form generalizations of these cases by identifying the commonalities between them. In order to enhance long-term retention, educators may want to consider using interleaved presentation rather than massed presentation in teaching examples or cases from a particular category or concept.

"Bridge supervision" occurs when the connection between manager and boss is a network bridge between separate social worlds. Improved communication technology has facilitated the use of bridge supervision, so manager and boss can easily interact by audio or onscreen as a pair of people disconnected from surrounding colleagues—but at what cost to the manager, or to effective management? We argue that bridge supervision affects the way in which managers play their role, but not how well the role is played. We find clear support for the argument in a traditional corporate hierarchy. Managers operating under bridge supervision exclude the boss from their work discussions and are conservative in expressing emotion. Behavioral correlates notwithstanding, compensation and good ideas have their familiar association with network brokerage independent of bridge versus embedded supervision. In sum, bridge supervision affects manager style, but not performance. We conclude this paper by discussing the implications of our findings for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we adopt a dynamic perspective on networks and creativity to propose that the oft-theorized creative benefits of open networks and heterogeneous content are less likely to be accrued over time if the network is stable. Specifically, we hypothesize that open networks and content heterogeneity will have a more positive effect on creativity when network stability is low. We base our prediction on the fact that, over time, network stability begets cognitive rigidity and social rigidity, thus limiting individuals' ability to make use of the creative advantages provided by open networks and heterogeneous content. On the contrary, new ties bring a positive "shock" that pushes individuals in the network to change the way they organize and process knowledge, as well as the way they interact and collaborate--a shock that enables creators to accrue the creative advantages provided by open network structures and heterogeneous content. We test and find support for our theory in a study on the core artists who worked on the TV series Doctor Who between 1963 and 2014. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the link between the social networks surrounding business leaders and temporal myopia in strategic planning. Specifically, we hypothesize that processes characteristic of being embedded in a closed network are associated with a lack of foresight and a tendency to neglect long-run strategic planning. Using a probability sample of 700 CEOs in China, we showthat network closure is associatedwith temporalmyopia, which is evidenced in various measures of business planning. We show that managers embedded in closed networks are less experienced in long-run planning and are also less successful in implementing long-run business plans. Our contribution to the literature is twofold: we add a network perspective to the literature on temporal myopia in strategic management and, more significantly, by grounding temporal myopia in the network surrounding a person, we separate temporal myopia fromthe person. Myopia emerges from the social situations we create or in which we find ourselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We reconcile two conflicting views of the network centralization effect on team performance. In one view, a centralized network is problematic because it limits knowledge transfer, making it harder for team members to discover productive combinations of their know-how and expertise. In the alternative view, the limits on knowledge transfer encourage search and experimentation, leading to the discovery of more valuable ideas. We maintain the two sides are not opposed but reflect two distinct ways centralization can affect a team's shared problem-solving framework. The shared framework in our research is a shared language. We contend that team network centralization affects both how quickly a shared language emerges and the performance implications of the shared language that develops. We analyze the performance of 77 teams working to identify abstract symbols for 15 trials. Teams work under network conditions that vary with respect to centralization. Results indicate that centralized teams take longer to develop a shared language, but centralized teams also create a shared language that is more beneficial for performance. The findings also indicate that the highest performing teams are assigned to networks that combine elements of a centralized and a decentralized network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is an established finding that spacing repetitions generally facilitates memory for the repeated events. However, the effect of spacing of exemplars on inductive learning is not really known. Two experiments using textual material were conducted to investigate the effect of spacing on induction. Experiment 1 and 2 extended the generality of recently observed spacing benefits to texts, regardless of whether they were visually or aurally presented. Interestingly, participants in both experiments judged massing to be more effective than spacing though their performance showed the opposite. Possible explanations for the superiority of the spaced condition over the massed condition in inductive learning, practical implications of the present study and suggestions for future research are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 4 figures.)

The dual-route model of reading proposes distinct lexical and sub-lexical procedures for word reading and spelling. Lexically reliant and sub-lexically reliant reader subgroups were selected from 78 university students on the basis of their performance on lexical (orthographic) and sub-lexical (phonological) choice tests, and on irregular and nonword naming. In spelling of irregular words and nonwords to dictation, the group comparisons failed to support the dissociative predictions for lexical and sub-lexical reliance that were derived from the dual-route model: lexical readers were not superior to sub-lexical readers on spelling irregular words as well as inferior to sub-lexical readers on spelling regular letter strings (nonwords). In line with a single-route view, print exposure and phonological coding (nonword naming accuracy) appear to be key factors in the effective learning of both regular and irregular words. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.)

We examined associative and item recognition using the maintenance rehearsal paradigm. Our intent was to control for mnemonic strategies; to produce a low, graded level of learning; and to provide evidence of the role of attention in long-term memory. An advantage for low-frequency words emerged in both associative and item recognition at very low levels of learning. This early emergence casts doubt on explanations based on the traditional concept of recollection. A comparison of false alarms supports a role for item information or the joint use of cues but not familiarity in producing associative false alarms. We may also have found a way to measure the amount of attention being paid to a to-be-learned item or pair, independently of memory performance on the attended item. This result may be an important step in determining whether coherent theories about the role of attention in long- and short-term memory can be created. (Contains 2 footnotes and 9 tables.)

University students participated in five experiments concerning the effects of unmasked, orthographically similar, primes on visual word recognition in the lexical decision task (LDT) and naming tasks. The modal prime-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was 350 ms. When primes were words that were orthographic neighbors of the targets, and relative to primes sharing no letters in position with the targets, interference with responses to targets was observed consistently in both tasks. Nonword primes did not consistently interfere except with high-frequency targets in the LDT. Phonological similarity and congruity and incongruity in spelling-sound connections did not account for the effects of orthographic similarity. The results are consistent with competition in lexical processing and suggest shared mechanisms of inhibition for masked and unmasked neighbor primes. (Contains 8 tables and 2 figures.)

Forty-eight adults were trained on monosyllabic pseudowords and their meanings and then tested in vocal spelling. The orthographic inconsistency of the rime (e.g. "orn, awn" for "glorn") and the number of learning trials affected accuracy and response latency in the vocal spelling test. In addition, orthographic typicality as assessed by neighbour statistics predicted item spelling accuracy. Spelling accuracy on orthographically consistent items significantly increased with training, suggesting that unfamiliar monosyllables are not necessarily spelled by reliance on sound-spelling correspondences at the rime level. Analysis of spelling errors revealed that good spellers made more spelling errors containing alternative rime spellings and fewer errors that were phonologically inappropriate than poor spellers.

The role of orthographic processing skill (OPS) in reading has aroused the interest of many developmental researchers. Despite observations by Vellutino that current measures of OPS primarily are indicators of reading (and spelling) achievement, OPS commonly is distinguished from both reading achievement and phonological skills. An analysis of the reading literature indicates that there is no theory in which OPS meaningfully plays a role as an independent skill or causal factor in reading acquisition. Rather, OPS indexes fluent word identification and spelling knowledge, and there is no evidence to refute the hypothesis that its development relies heavily on phonological processes. Results of correlational studies and reader group comparisons (a) cannot inform about on-line processes and (b) may be parsimoniously explained in terms of phonological skills, reading experience, unmeasured language abilities and methodological factors, without implying that OPS is an aetiologically separable skill. Future research would profit from the investigation in experimental studies of the nature and development of orthographic representations.

One hundred and twelve university students completed 7 tests assessing word-reading accuracy, print exposure, phonological sensitivity, phonological coding and knowledge of English morphology as predictors of spelling accuracy. Together the tests accounted for 71% of the variance in spelling, with phonological skills and morphological knowledge emerging as strong predictors of spelling accuracy for words with both regular and irregular sound-spelling correspondences. The pattern of relationships was consistent with a model in which, as a function of the learning opportunities that are provided by reading experience, phonological skills promote the learning of individual word orthographies and structural relationships among words.