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Birds have a diverse community of “permanent” arthropods that complete their entire life cycle on the body of the host. Because some of these arthropods are parasites that reduce host fitness, birds control them by grooming, which consists of preening with the beak and scratching with the feet. Although preening is the primary component of grooming, scratching is essential for controlling arthropods on the head and neck, which cannot be preened. Several unrelated groups of birds have evolved comb-like pectinate claws on the middle toenail of each foot. We tested the role of these claws in the control of arthropods by experimentally removing teeth from the claws of captive western cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) infested with chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera), feather mites (Acari: Sarcoptiformes), and nasal mites (Acari: Mesostigmata). After a period of 4 mo, we compared the abundance of arthropods on experimental birds to that of control birds with intact teeth. We used video to quantify the grooming rates of the captive birds, which groomed twice as much as wild birds. Experimental and control birds did not differ significantly in grooming time. Both groups virtually eradicated the chewing lice, but not feather mites or nasal mites. We found no support for the hypothesis that pectinate claws increase the efficiency of arthropod control by grooming. Experiments with wild birds are needed to test the hypothesis further under conditions in which birds devote less time to grooming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Interspecific competition is known to be strongest between those species that are both closely related and sympatric. Egrets are colonially nesting wetland birds that often overlap and can therefore be expected to compete in roosting and nesting habitat as well as in diet. According to the niche partitioning hypothesis, it is to be expected that these similar species would show differentiation in at least one of the main niche dimensions to reduce competition. We tested niche partitioning between the colonially nesting Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) and Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) in temporal, spatial and trophic dimensions. Methods Field study was conducted in three mixed egret colonies in Yangxian County, southwest Shaanxi Province, central China. For each nest colony we recorded its spatial location, the height of nesting trees and of nests, the height of roosting trees and of roosting individuals within the trees. We determined the first egg-laying and first hatching dates of the two species. Craw dissection of storm-killed egret nestlings was used to measure the diet. Six transects were surveyed to study foraging habitat selection. Results We found that hatching time of Little Egrets peaked earlier (by about 1 month) than that of Cattle Egrets. Cattle Egrets nested and roosted higher than Little Egrets. The foraging habitats used by Little Egrets were dominated by river banks (73.49%), followed by paddy fields (13.25%) and reservoirs (10.84%), whereas Cattle Egret foraging sites were characterized by grasslands (44.44%), paddy fields (33.33%) and river banks (22.22%). Little Egrets consumed more fishes (65.66%) and Odonata larvae (13.69%) than Cattle Egrets, while Cattle Egrets were found feeding mainly on Coleoptera (29.69%) and Orthoptera (23.29%). Little Egrets preyed on larger mean biomasses of food items than Cattle Egrets. Conclusions Our results confirm the niche partitioning hypothesis as a mechanism for coexistence among ecologically similar species. In two coexisting egret species, niche partitioning is multidimensional, such that the two coexistent species occupy differing ecological space based on all three temporal, spatial and trophic niche dimensions.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of food supply in garbage dumps on the reproductive fitness of Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis and offspring losses. A total of 236 nests were monitored during two distinct periods of 2 years for each: 146 nests during a period without food supply in dumps (1998-1999) and 90 with food supply in dumps (2007-2008). The study was carried out in the colony of El-Kseur in the Lower Soummam Valley (northeast Algeria). For the entire study period, the mean of clutch size, average number of hatched chicks, productivity, and breeding success varied significantly between years (Kruskal-Wallis test: p < .05). Also, the average calculated losses for eggs, chicks, and total offspring vary significantly (Chi2 test: p > .0001). The clutch size and the number of hatched chicks per nest were highest during the period with food supply in garbage dump (respectively: 3.46 ± 0.86; 2.85 ± 1.11), compared to the period when cattle egrets feed in natural or agricultural habitats (3.04 ± 0.87; 2.54 ± 1.03). However, productivity and breeding success were highest during the period without food supply (respectively: 2.11 ± 1.16 fledging's/nest; 0.70 ± 0.35) than in the period with food supply (1.14 ± 0.91; 0.35 ± 0.30). While egg losses were substantially similar between the two study periods, chick's mortality (59.9%) and total offspring losses (36.7%) were higher during the period with food supply. The generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) analysis indicated a large negative effect of food supply in dumps on the productivity, on the chick's losses; and a positive effect on the total offspring losses (p < .001). Also, feed in dump garbage revealed a significant negative effect on the breeding success linear mixed model (LMM, p = .01). However, no significant effects (GLMM, p > .05) of food supply in dumps were noted on average clutch size, the mean number of hatched chicks per nest, and egg losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Interspecific competition is known to be strongest between those species that are both closely related and sympatric. Egrets are colonially nesting wetland birds that often overlap and can therefore be expected to compete in roosting and nesting habitat as well as in diet. According to the niche partitioning hypothesis, it is to be expected that these similar species would show differentiation in at least one of the main niche dimensions to reduce competition. We tested niche partitioning between the colonially nesting Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) and Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) in temporal, spatial and trophic dimensions. Methods: Field study was conducted in three mixed egret colonies in Yangxian County, southwest Shaanxi Province, central China. For each nest colony we recorded its spatial location, the height of nesting trees and of nests, the height of roosting trees and of roosting individuals within the trees. We determined the first egg-laying and first hatching dates of the two species. Craw dissection of storm-killed egret nestlings was used to measure the diet. Six transects were surveyed to study foraging habitat selection. Results: We found that hatching time of Little Egrets peaked earlier (by about 1 month) than that of Cattle Egrets. Cattle Egrets nested and roosted higher than Little Egrets. The foraging habitats used by Little Egrets were dominated by river banks (73.49%), followed by paddy fields (13.25%) and reservoirs (10.84%), whereas Cattle Egret foraging sites were characterized by grasslands (44.44%), paddy fields (33.33%) and river banks (22.22%). Little Egrets consumed more fishes (65.66%) and Odonata larvae (13.69%) than Cattle Egrets, while Cattle Egrets were found feeding mainly on Coleoptera (29.69%) and Orthoptera (23.29%). Little Egrets preyed on larger mean biomasses of food items than Cattle Egrets. Conclusions: Our results confirm the niche partitioning hypothesis as a mechanism for coexistence among ecologically similar species. In two coexisting egret species, niche partitioning is multidimensional, such that the two coexistent species occupy differing ecological space based on all three temporal, spatial and trophic niche dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some waterbird species are believed to have an impact on other waterbird species as they are able to usurp a limited habitat and destroy vegetation. In this study, we have analysed the nesting dynamics of five waterbird species: Grey Heron Ardea cinerea, Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, Little Egret Egretta garzetta, Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax and Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis, that had settled in a colony in the Royal Castle Park of Racconigi (Cuneo, NW Italy) over a 17-year period (2000 to 2017). The Great Cormorant and the Cattle Egret settled in the colony in 2008 and 2012, respectively. We analysed the relationships between the number of breeding pairs of the five species. In addition, we used the time series forecasting method to study the nesting dynamics and the impact of the new settlements on the pre-existing colony. The number of nests of the Great Cormorant and the Cattle Egret increased annually, and these species significantly affected the nesting trends of the other pre-existing species: Grey Heron, Black-crowned Night Heron and Little Egret. The Grey Heron mainly suffered from the occupation of its old nests by the Great Cormorant from 2008 to 2013. However, since 2014, the Grey Heron has been able to react, by displacing its breeding site to the tops of trees adjacent to the old heronry, and this has resulted in an even greater number of nests than before 2008. The Black-crowned Night Heron and the Little Egret suffered more from the settlement of the new species than the Grey Heron did, and started to suddenly or gradually abandon the breeding site. The colony has been modified profoundly by the settlement of the Great Cormorant and the Cattle Egret, and it is still subject to dynamics that could transform it in the coming years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Eradication of invasive rodents on islands typically results in positive conservation gains, and maintaining a rodent-free island requires elevated biosecurity, including prevention of assisted rodent arrival via watercraft, aircraft and animals such as birds. Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) are widespread, and often fly several kilometres daily to roost and forage. They frequently swallow insects and vertebrates (including rodents) whole, and some regurgitate prey. Cattle egrets have been regularly observed flying between the Hawaiian Islands of Ni'ihau (where non-native mice and rats are established) and Lehua (where one species of non-native rat is established and was targeted during a recent eradication attempt). Aims: The objectives were to identify the species of rodent that cattle egrets regurgitate following transport between Ni'ihau and Lehua islands, and to determine if any of the rodent individuals regurgitated were alive once deposited onto Lehua Island following 1.1-km oversea flights. Methods: Eighty-five individual rodent carcasses (regurgitated by cattle egrets) were collected, preserved and identified to species using morphological characteristics and DNA sequencing. Key results: All rodents regurgitated by cattle egrets were dead upon collection on Lehua Island. Although the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) is the only rodent species on Lehua Island, and field staff suspected the regurgitated rodents were R. exulans , all 85 carcasses were identified as house mice (Mus musculus). Conclusions: This is the first evidence (that the authors know of) showing movement of rodent carcasses, via cattle egrets, between islands. Implications: Cattle egrets that deposit rodent carcasses onto rodent-free islands, or segments of islands, may confuse land managers and biosecurity professionals who are unaware of this phenomenon. House mice did not survive cattle egret ingestion, >1-km flight and regurgitation; therefore it is unlikely that live rodents would be introduced to rodent-free areas via cattle egrets. Cattle egrets are widespread on islands and continents, and often swallow animal prey whole. We share the first evidence of rodent carcasses being moved by cattle egrets between islands. Land managers and biosecurity professionals who are actively keeping areas rodent free, such as islands, should be made aware of the possibility that cattle egrets could introduce rodent carcasses to rodent-free areas. Photograph by Fischreiher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

La garcilla bueyera (Bubulcus ibis L.) ha experimentado una gran expansión a nivel global en los últimos 100 años, llegando a colonizar la mayor parte del planeta a excepción del continente Antártico. Como especie nueva en Cantabria, el objetivo principal de este trabajo ha sido conocer su fenología y abundancia. En primer lugar se localizaron los dormideros, un total de 18, situados a lo largo de la mitad norte de la provincia, la mayoría en humedales de la franja costera. Posteriormente se realizaron los censos, siempre al atardecer, cuando las garcillas acuden a estos emplazamientos para pernoctar. Los resultados obtenidos indican una mayor abundancia y distribución de ejemplares durante el invierno (más de 6.000 individuos) que en la época estival (menos de 4.000), cuando más del 90 % de los ejemplares se concentra en las dos colonias de cría existentes. Existe una alta movilidad de la especie, ya que sin que apenas cambie la abundancia global encontramos que la abundancia de ejemplares dentro de cada dormidero es muy variable. Por otro lado, entre los dos dormideros principales más lejanos hay tan solo 75 km en línea recta, una distancia similar a lo que sabemos puede recorrer una garcilla bueyera diariamente (60-70 km). Con respecto al uso que hacen de los dormideros, se han registrado diferentes niveles de ocupación y fidelidad, que van desde los más de mil ejemplares pernoctando durante al menos dos meses seguidos, hasta aquellas localizaciones en las que aparecen menos de cien aves de manera puntual y su presencia no vuelve a registrarse en los meses posteriores. Podemos concluir que esta especie se ha consolidado como residente en Cantabria tras su reciente aparición hace poco más de veinte años, mostrando una gran capacidad a la hora de asentarse en el territorio y encontrar lugares de descanso y reproducción.

This article involves detailed descriptions of interesting and rare ornithological records in the region of South Bohemia. The aim is to publish descriptions of extremely rare bird occurrences or unusually high numbers of individuals of some particularly rare species, especially massive migrations, breeding or winter irruptions during 2017. The long-term occurrence of Pygmy Cormorant (Microcarbo pygmaeus) in South Bohemia, summer stay of Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) near České Budějovice, probable breeding of Eurasian Curlew (Numenius arquata) in České Budějovice fishponds Special Protected Area, breeding and spreading of European Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) in South Bohemia and summary of occurrence for Greenish Warbler (Phylloscopus trochiloides) in Bohemian Forest are included in this issue as well as the summary of other interesting observations. Previous records or regular patterns of each species occurrence are discussed. Record conditions are put in the context of known information from South Bohemia, the Czech Republic or Europe, where appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We determined the pharmacokinetic properties of ceftiofur crystalline-free acid (CCFA), a long-acting antibiotic, after a single intramuscular injection in cattle egrets ( Bubulcus ibis). A dose of 20 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly to 18 birds and blood samples were collected via jugular venipuncture at 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, 168, 192, 216, and 240 hours after CCFA administration. Plasma concentrations of ceftiofur free acid equivalents (CFAEs) were measured via high-performance liquid chromatography. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1 μg/mL was reached by 1 hour after administration and remained higher than the MIC for at least 72 hours in all birds. This target concentration is effective for many bacterial infections in avian species. The area under the plasma concentration versus time curve was 451.3 h*μg/mL, maximum plasma concentration was 16.22 μg/mL, time to maximum plasma concentration was 3.2 hours, mean harmonic half-life was 37.92 hours, and time that the concentrations of CFAEs were higher than the target MIC was a minimum of 72 hours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behavioral and genetic data were used to determine whether more than one female lays eggs in nests of the Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis). Eighty-five nests were monitored, and 18 nests with eggs suspected to be from different females were selected. Both types of eggs were swabbed to sample for DNA since eggshells contain cells from the reproductive tract of the mother or the skin of incubating individuals. Using these swabs, molecular sexing was first conducted, and three clutches were discarded due to samples with a pattern of male DNA. In the remaining 15 nests, DNA was extracted from swabs (n = 45 eggs) and genotyped at seven microsatellite loci. The genetic diagnosis was developed rath a blinded protocol including both suspected and non-suspected eggs by comparison of maternal DNA found on the eggs. With one exception, genotypes not compatible with the predominant female genotype in each clutch were found almost exclusively on suspected eggs, proving that the genetic diagnosis was not an artifact. Using a behavioral criterion, multiple laying females were detected in 21.1% nests, but genetic data showed that the behavior methodology should be modified. In the 15 nests analyzed, the behavioral criterion failed to detect one suspected egg in one nest (#11) (false negative) and indicated two suspected eggs in two nests (#12 and #13) that were not confirmed using the genetic criterion (false positives). The results showed that estimates based solely on the behavior approach can be biased, and the genetic method should be applied to check and improve ecological data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted in the Chlef region which is located in the northwest of Algeria whose geographical coordinates are 36° 12' North latitude and 1º 19' of East longitude. The determination of predation by cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis was performed by analysis of adult rejection pellets. These are harvested in a heronry located in the public garden of the city of Chlef in Algeria. The examination of 480 pellets of B. ibis made us to determine 14093 preys, which contributed to 77.95% of pests of plants. The insects identified from pellets of heron count were 81.13%. These are dominated by beetles (40.4%) and grasshoppers (28.41%). Insects from hemiptera, hymenoptera, homoptera, and diptera groups were also recorded but at a low levels of 1-15%. Other insect preys consist of mammals (1.77%), myriapods (0.28%), and gastropods (0.11%). The insects were the only preys found in 100% of pellets examined with the beetles at the highest frequency of occurrence (81.25%) followed by orthopterans (62.92%). The major pests preyed on by the egrets were insects (97.83%), represented by coleopterans (40.4%), orthopterans (28.41%), hemipterans (15.57%), hymenopterans (11.25%), homopterans (1.3%), and dipterans (0.9%). The other preys consisted of mammals (1.77%), myriapods (0.28%), and gastropods (0.11%). Pests other than insects were also less consumed and included the diplopoda (0.28%), gastropods (0.11%), and rodents (1.77%). The present results show that the cattle egret is a very important auxiliary of agriculture that not only predated on variety of pests but also these were also economically important pests of agriculturally important crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article involves detail descriptions of interesting and rare ornithological records in the region of South Bohemia. The aim is to publish descriptions of extremely rare bird occurrences or unusually high numbers of individuals of some particular rare species, especially massive migrations, breeding or winter irruptions in 2016. The breeding of Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) near České Budějovice -- the first documented breeding in the Czech Republic, intensive fall migration of Common Crane (Grus grus), third record of Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) in South Bohemia and high breeding density and spreading of Ural Owl (Strix uralensis) in Boletice military training area are included in this issue as well as the summary of other interesting observations. Previous records or regular patterns of each species occurrence are discussed. Record conditions are put in the context with known information from South Bohemia, the Czech Republic or Europe, where appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fecal deposition by colonial nesting waterbirds is a potential source of nutrient enrichment and pollution of nearby waterways. Excess concentrations of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) can cause water quality concerns or impairment. We estimated concentrations of N and P deposited to waterbodies by birds nesting in four colonies in east-central Texas during 2011–2013, and developed an age-structured compartment model to estimate the amount of fecal N and P material deposited by birds during the entire breeding season. There was a seasonal variation in the accumulation of N and P in waterbodies where heronries were located with a significant increase from June to July at the peak of the breeding season. Also, there was a significant positive correlation in concentrations of N ( P = 0.023) in fecal material and water samples from one of the colonies (Murphy Park), suggesting a significant contribution of N from feces to water. Concentrations of N in water near the colonies were also significantly correlated ( P = 0.004, R 2 = 0.22) with the average amount of precipitation recorded for each region. The simulation model results indicated that total N and P deposition increased proportionally with heronry size, and daily deposition rates varied due to the shifting daily activity budgets of the birds as the breeding season progressed. The total estimated loads from the model reached a maximum of 2170 kg N and 240 kg P for a given colony, with daily deposition estimated at 22.8 kg N, and 2.5 kg P. Based on the model, one bird can release about 1 mg of N and 0.115 mg of P on a daily basis to the soil substrate or directly over water. Results from this study could be useful to estimate the contribution of N and P from wildlife to waterbodies, and for watershed management plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Los rellenos sanitarios constituyen un foco de atracción para la avifauna, aunque las implicancias de esta relación no han sido exploradas en el país. Nosotros monitoreamos la actividad de aves en un relleno sanitario ubicado en las proximidades de la ciudad de Santiago, capital administrativa de Chile. Las principales aves en el área fueron la gaviota dominicana (Larus dominicanus Lichtenstein), el tiuque (Milvago chimango Vieillot), la garza boyera {Buculbus ibis Linnaeus) y el águila (Geranoaetus melanoleucus Swann). La gaviota dominicana alcanzó los valores de abundancia más altos (entre 358 y 1950 individuos por día) y destacó por su comportamiento bimodal, directamente relacionado con los niveles de operación en el relleno sanitario. En el caso del águila se registró una conducta carroñera cleptoparásita sobre los tiuques, estos últimos seleccionan desechos orgánicos (pescados, tripas, carne), que les son usurpados por ellas. Finalmente señalamos medidas simples de manejo que deberían disminuir los números de aves en este tipo de actividad industrial.Landfills are considered an attractive habitat for several bird species; however, implications of this condition have not yet been explored in the country. We monitored birds' activity patterns that use a landfill located in the vicinity of Santiago, Chile's capital. Main birds recorded in the area were, Kelp gull (Larus dominicanus Lichtenstein), Chimango caracara (Milvago chimango Vieillot), Cattle egret (Buculbus ibis Linnaeus) and Black Chested Eagle (Geranoaetus melanoleucus Swann). Kelp Gull was the most abundant species, (with values between 358 to 1950 individuals per day) and that also displayed a bimodal behavior linked directly to the landfill operation levels. In the case of Black Chested Eagle, we observed a kleptoparasitic behavior over Chimango Caracara which selected organic offal (fishes, innards, meat) for its feeding and that are stolen by the eagle. Finally we highlight simple management activities that should decrease the number of birds in these kinds of facilities.

Colony occupation by Cattle EgretsBubulcus ibisat an arid location in north-east Algeria lasted from mid-March or April to August. The colony, which was founded in 2003, increased from 124 pairs in 2007 to 250 pairs in 2011 and the density of nests from 0.36 to 0.73 nests m−2in the same period. The number of trees used for nesting increased from 16 trees in 2007 to 40 in 2011. The average height of nesting trees ranged from 12.8 士 3.0 m in 2007 to 13.6 土 2.9 m in 2011, whereas the average height of nests varied between 11.5 土 2.5 m and 13.2 土 2.9 m. Cattle Egrets built their nests mainly on strong primary branches of trees (30%) or secondary branches at the periphery of the tree's crown (29%). Numbers of nests sited in a tree were significantly influenced by the species of tree and the diameters of its trunk and crown, as well as by the horizontal and vertical positions of nests within the tree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four cases of interspecific mixed broods between Little Egrets ( Egretta garzetta; n = 175), Cattle Egrets ( Bubulcus ibis; n = 125), Squacco Herons ( Ardeola ralloides; n = 25) and Black-crowned Night-Herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax; n = 199) were recorded from 7 April to 16 August 2016 at two colonies in Iran. The rare occurrence of mixed broods and the low survival of the parasite chicks suggest that brood parasitism is not adaptive in the Ardeidae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cattle Egret ( Bubulcus ibis) is native to the old world. Before 1877 no Cattle Egrets had been sighted in the Americas. There are no written records of this species being transported to or escaping from captivity in South America and there is enough evidence to suggest that individuals are capable of making the crossing from Africa to the Americas unaided. Since long-distance movements of species are partly dependent on meteorological events we analyze the possibility of B. ibis crossing the Atlantic Ocean aided only by wind conditions evaluating existing theories and shedding light on their feasibility through the analysis of weather patterns and atmospheric circulation. Zonal and meridional wind components taken from the Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project were used to calculate trajectories between different points along the West African coast and South America between 1871 and 1920 in two seasons (March-April and September-October). From a total of 192,864 trajectories analyzed, 1,695 with origin in the west coast of Africa reached the NE coast of South America or the Caribbean islands in less than a week (successful trajectories). The probability of these successful trajectories originating in Central Africa was above 0.65 for the majority of the destinations analyzed. Particularly, in Guyana and Suriname where B. ibis was first sighted, the probability of the origin being Central Africa was 0.84, most of them occurring during March. Several weather events favored not only the colonization of the Cattle Egret but also its establishment and spread all throughout the Americas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents study on the establishment of large Cattle Egret breeding colonies in upland residential areas of east central Texas. The geographic extent and scale-dependent nature of the phenomenon of breeding sites were investigated. A habitat suitability model was constructed at multiple scales. The model classified 79 percent of upland colony locations in high or very high suitable habitat. Cattle Egret are likely to choose upland, residential sites to breed.

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The Cattle Egret is considered an important auxiliary in agro-ecosystems, known by its dietary plasticity and habitat versatility. In this context, the present study focuses on the temporal variation of Bubulcus ibis preys, through the analysis of excrements of a colony located in the city of Chlef, in Northwest Algeria. To this aim, 10 randomly collected fecal pellets were analyzed each month over a period of 4 years. The results showed a highly variable diet, related on the one hand, to the dietary requirements, according to the predator's growth stage, and, on the other hand, to the availability of prey, depending on their life cycle, seasons, ecological conditions and feeding environments. Among all the identified preys, only insects and especially Coleoptera and Orthoptera were consumed throughout the year at high quantities, with a clear decrease during winter compared to the remaining seasons. Insect's deficiency during winter was overcome by other preys such as small mammals, amphibians, reptiles or mollusks. • Bubulcus ibis diet varies over time. • Heron diet varies according to food needs and conditions of food environments. • Heron feeds primarily on insects, including Coleoptera and Orthoptera. • The rarity of insects in Heron's diet during winter is compensated by vertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]