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Agricultural mechanics holds an important place in agricultural education programs. Teacher efficacy in regards to teaching agricultural mechanics is also important. We used a questionnaire to survey agricultural education teachers in Iowa regarding agricultural mechanics. Spearman Rho correlations were used to determine the magnitude of the relationship between teachers' perceived competency to teach agricultural mechanics skills and the adequacy of tools and equipment available to teach agricultural mechanics skills in school-based agricultural education (SBAE) programs. Correlations between tool adequacy and perceived competency to teach agricultural mechanics skills were identified as statistically significant (p < 0.05) in all 54 content areas addressed within the instrument. The results of the present study aligned with prior research regarding perceived competency and available teaching resources. The possibility exists that a lack of competency in a given skill area may result from, or may result in, a lack of adequate tools and equipment available to teach within that particular skill area. Perhaps the converse is instead true. We recommend that program stakeholders work to ensure that teachers are competent, and have access to adequate tools and equipment necessary, to teach agricultural mechanics.

Preservice teacher candidates in agricultural education have expressed concerns with teaching agricultural mechanics content yet the number of required courses in agricultural mechanics has dwindled. To determine the root of current teachers' perceptions, it is important to look at the developmental experiences that have led to those perceptions. The theory of social development and knowing that knowledge influences beliefs provided a foundation to describe the relationship between the Iowa agricultural education teachers' perceived level of importance to teach selected agricultural mechanics skills and the quantity of agricultural mechanics training received as a secondary student. Data was collected during the Iowa agricultural education teachers' conference. Thirty-two of the 54 selected agricultural mechanics skills exhibited a significant, positive correlation between the teachers' viewed importance of teaching those skills and the amount of secondary training they received in those skill areas. Experience at the secondary level has an impact on content teachers view as important and post-secondary teacher educators and industry should continue to help beginning teachers receive additional training and support in agricultural mechanics. Additional research should be conducted to determine the factors, in addition to the quantity of secondary training received, which influence teachers' perceived importance to teach agricultural mechanics skills.

Agricultural mechanics is an important component of a well-rounded school-based agricultural education (SBAE) program. Within agricultural mechanics courses lies a plethora of topics and skills to be covered. Adequate tools and equipment are vital in preparing students to fill an expanding, 21st century workforce. The issue of inadequate teaching materials has been well documented throughout the entire educational system, and such inadequacies may leave gaps in students' ability to become proficient within agricultural mechanics. A paper-based questionnaire was distributed to all teachers in attendance at the Iowa teachers' conference. This descriptive study sought to identify teacher-perceived adequacy of available tools and equipment to teach agricultural mechanics in Iowa. The researchers found that many agricultural education teachers in Iowa are ill-equipped to teach many concepts within agricultural mechanics due to a reported lack of adequate tools and equipment. Agricultural education teachers in SBAE programs should ensure adequate tools and equipment to meet curricular and industry standards. It is recommended to examine purchasing decisions of tools for inclusion in the agricultural mechanics laboratory as well.

Self-adequacy during the student teaching experience is high on the list of concerns expressed by student teachers (Fritz & Miller, 2003; Ng, Nicholas, & Williams, 2010). That factor, in combination with others, determines student teachers' goals and sparks their motivation to engage in effective instructional planning (Baylor & Kitsantas, 2005). The purpose of this study was to determine student teachers' perceptions of the use of the tuning protocol, a formalized process of reflective practice and peer review (Allen & McDonald, 1993; Easton, 2009), to revise lesson plans. When open coding was used to analyze student teachers' perceptions, four themes emerged: benefits, drawbacks, structure of the tuning protocol, and recommendations for future use. The majority of student teachers were satisfied with the outcomes of the tuning protocol review process and planned to use it in their professional careers. Recommendations for use of the tuning protocol in various stages of the teacher education program are presented.

Flipped learning is an innovative approach to teaching at the post-secondary level. Traditional methods of initial delivery of curricular content occur before a face-to-face class session. Students must prepare before attending class, as the majority of face-to-face class sessions are utilized for applying curricular content to complex problems. A specific application of flipped learning, Team-Based Learning holds students accountable for the pre-class preparation via an individual test, as well as to their peers via a team test. Students engage and discuss curricular content on the team test as well as application exercises, which are rigorously designed activities aimed at increasing cognitive skills of the students. This study sought to determine students' perceptions of a recently adopted, atypical teaching approach, known as Team-Based Learning in the Iowa State University capstone farm management course (AgEdS 450). Post-course quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Overall student perceptions were positive and supported the adoption of a student-centered course design. It is recommended that dedicated training workshops be developed for faculty members within Colleges of Agriculture that focus on student-centered instruction. Further examination of Team-Based Learning in other courses within Colleges of Agriculture, and Agricultural Education courses specifically, is recommended.

Preparing teachers to teach agricultural mechanics is a difficult task since many topic areas are included in the curriculum. This study examines the effect of the number of college courses taken on a teacher's perceived competence to teach agricultural mechanics. Agricultural education teachers in Iowa ranked themselves according to their perceived, individual competence in 54 skill areas associated with agricultural mechanics curricula. Respondents also indicated the number of agricultural mechanics courses they completed in their teacher preparation program. Teachers who completed one or no courses had low to slight perceived level of competence while teachers who took two or more courses identified a moderate level of perceived competence in agricultural mechanics. Teachers indicating six or more classes completed exhibited a high-perceived competence. A positive correlation was identified between courses completed and perceived competence as the more courses taken the higher the self-perceived competence level of the teacher. To develop the competence of pre-service agricultural education teacher candidates it is recommended to examine the current agricultural mechanics curricula in teacher preparation programs. It is further recommended that professional development be offered in areas identified by agricultural education teachers as having low perceived competence.

Secondary agricultural education teachers were surveyed to examine if a relationship existed between the physical attributes of agricultural mechanics laboratories and agricultural education teachers' enjoyment of teaching agricultural mechanics. Teachers also indicated their competence to teach courses other than agricultural mechanics within the agricultural education curriculum, perceived importance of Iowa agricultural education curricula, and training an agricultural mechanics Career Development Event (CDE) team. Responses were collected from 103 Iowa agricultural education teachers. It was found that shop size and the age of the shop did not have a correlation between agricultural education teachers' enjoyment of teaching agricultural mechanics, competence in other courses, importance of agricultural mechanics, or training a team to compete in the state CDE. Teachers' enjoyment of teaching agricultural mechanics was positively correlated to the size of the budget for consumables and equipment for their agricultural mechanics laboratory. Researchers recommend that further research be conducted to identify factors which motivate agricultural education teachers who teach agricultural mechanics within secondary agricultural education programs.

Student teaching is an important capstone experience in which preservice teacher candidates begin to learn the skills they need to become effective teachers. During this experience, candidates develop concerns for themselves as well as for their students. As preservice teachers encounter challenges and obstacles, it is important for them to communicate these concerns. Preservice teachers from Iowa State University participated in a Twitter-based electronic community of practice to express their teaching concerns. This study was designed to identify preservice teachers' concerns and determine if they aligned with Moir's (1990/2011) phases of first-year teaching. By understanding preservice teachers' concerns in real time, teacher educators can better address the candidates' self-adequacy concerns throughout the teacher preparation program. We recommend that preservice teachers express their concerns during student teaching through an electronic community of practice so teacher educators can address concerns in a timely manner.

Further investigation is needed to determine the specific laboratory management needs of agricultural education teachers. The theoretical foundation which guided this study was Bandura's theory of self-efficacy (1997). To further align this theory with this study, researchers explored the beliefs and one's capabilities to organize and excute the course of action to manage an agricultural mechanics laboratory. The research objectives for this study were: Determine the self-perceived level(s) of importance and ability as related to agricultural mechanics laboratory management competencies and determine the professional development needs of Iowa school-based agricultural education teachers regarding agricultural mechanics laboratory management competencies. Results of the Mean Weighted Discrepancy Scores (MWDS) indicated teacher's greatest in-service needs revolved around hazardous laboratory conditions and materials. The competencies which ranked the highest included correcting hazardous laboratory conditions, safely disposing of hazardous materials, properly installing and maintaining safety devices and emergency equipment, safely handling hazardous materials, and safely storing hazardous materials. Agricultural education teachers need professional development in the realm of hazardous conditions within the confines of an agricultural mechanics laboratory and handling hazardous materials. Working with hazardous materials is a critical competency agricultural educators must have when managing any type of laboratory.

Agricultural mechanics instruction is a long-standing and significant part of secondary agricultural education. Similar to the broader agricultural industry, agricultural mechanics instruction is in a constant state of dynamic change. Educators must be proactive to ensure agricultural mechanics curriculum retains its relevance within this changing environment and that educators are prepared to facilitate that change. The agricultural mechanics in-service needs of secondary agricultural educators in Iowa were examined. Researchers used descriptive measures and mean weighted discrepancy scores to determine teacher perceptions of content importance, teaching competence, and in-service training needs. The areas of highest perceived importance were welding safety, construction and shop safety, and shielded metal arc welding. Agricultural mechanics instructors rated themselves least prepared to teach computer aided design, profile leveling, and hot metal work. As shown by mean weighted discrepancy scores, areas of highest additional training need were global positioning systems, electrical safety, and computer aided design.

The frequency and severity of accidents that occur in the agricultural mechanics laboratory can be reduced when these facilities are managed by educators who are competent in the area of laboratory safety and facility management (McKim & Saucier, 2011). To ensure teachers are technically competent and prepared to manage an agricultural mechanics laboratory, teacher educators and state supervisory staff must provide a comprehensive pre-service education and professional development opportunities in the area of agricultural mechanics that improve teacher retention, program continuity, and ensure a future supply of fully qualified and highly motivated teachers (Osborne, 2007; Saucier, Terry, & Schumacher, 2009). In this study, data were collected with a web-based questionnaire designed to determine Kentucky agriculture teachers' perceptions of the importance of 14 agricultural mechanics laboratory safety competencies and their self-assessed ability to perform those competencies. The Borich (1980) Needs Assessment Model was used to assess these teachers' needs. Researchers found subjects were in need of continuing education in the area of laboratory safety. To improve teachers competence, educators should receive professional development through technical workshops, winter and summer conferences, and via webinars (Barrick, Ladewig, & Hedges, 1983; Birkenholz & Harbstreit, 1987; McKim & Saucier, 2011; Saucier, et al., 2009).

Agricultural mechanics coursework has historically been considered an important and necessary construct of the secondary agricultural education curriculum (Burris, Robinson, & Terry, 2005). With expectations of offering secondary agricultural mechanics coursework apparent, it is vital that agricultural education teachers be prepared to address these curriculum needs. Recent evidence (Burris, McLaughlin, McCulloch, Brashears, & Fraze, 2010) indicated that many agricultural education teachers (particularly early-career teachers) felt less comfortable teaching agricultural mechanics than other agricultural content areas. Hubert and Leising (2000) indicated, on average, potential agriculture education teachers are only required to enroll in two (2) three-credit hour courses to meet certification requirements. The purpose of this study was to describe potential relationships between the quantity of agricultural mechanics training and skills received at the secondary and at the post-secondary levels. Correlations were calculated to determine the magnitude of these relationships. Statistically significant, positive correlations were found in each of the skill areas. The researchers recommend that agricultural mechanics coursework be increased and enhanced at teacher preparation institutions. Also, the modernization of secondary and post-secondary agricultural mechanics facilities and curricula to reflect increases in available technologies should be considered as a method to enhance students' interests in the content area.

Career and technical education (CTE) remains an excellent vehicle for hands-on, minds-on instructional content that works to prepare students for industry-based settings (Slusher, Robinson, & Edwards, 2011). Access to appropriate resources for CTE programs, such as available tools and equipment, can be influential in determining the quality of such coursework and laboratory management more broadly (McKim & Saucier, 2013). Through the lens of distributed cognition as our conceptual framework and in the context of a larger preliminary study rooted in mechanics-based education, we examined the available tools and equipment to teach two-stroke engines as reported by CTE teachers (N = 20) who participated in a comprehensive, industry-led two-stroke engines workshop at Iowa State University. Echoing the findings of McCubbins, Anderson, Paulsen, and Wells (2016), the teachers in the present study reported limited availability of many of the tools and equipment needed to teach two-stroke engines content within their own programs. Recommendations include replication of this study on a national scale, the establishment of program and industry partnerships to identify and procure the necessary tools and equipment for each skill area, and continued professional development opportunities for teachers in the areas of two-stroke engine inspection, troubleshooting, repair, theory and safety.

Professional development training is an excellent method for teachers to acquire new skills within both familiar and unfamiliar content areas (Phipps et al., 2008; Saucier, McKim, & Tummons, 2012). Prior research (Saucier et al., 2012; Shultz et al., 2014) has identified that small gas engines is an area where professional development training is warranted. The Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986) provides the foundation for the skills developed during a teacher's career, and even over the course of the professional development workshop. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate perceived importance to teach, competence to perform, curriculum available to teach, and ability to teach selected skill areas related to two-stroke engine inspection and testing prior to and after attending a two-day intensive professional development workshop. Through the lens of the Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition, it was evident that the teachers participating in the workshop experienced a progression of skill level. Moreover, this was particularly apparent regarding their perceived abilities to teach two-stroke engine inspection and testing skills. We wish to acknowledge that the teachers who participated in this study are not necessarily at the Expert stage; it is conceivable, based upon our results, that growth in expertise related to two-stroke engine inspection and testing skills did indeed occur during the professional development workshop.

This study examined the use of dexterity as an indicator of future performance of beginning welders. This could lead to the selection or recruitment of participants for welding training programs. With a high demand for welders, it is imperative that welding training programs be efficient at producing certified welders. The time required to train certified welders is one of the obstacles training programs face. Many occupational fields have tried to predict a student's future performances before admitting them into a training program by analyzing their dexterous ability. This study utilized the complete Minnesota Dexterity Test to examine Participants' dexterity during a welding training program. Upon completion of the training program, participants performed tests welds that were overseen by a certified welding instructor (CWI) who visually inspectes each weld. All three dexterity tests were found to have statistically significant relationships with the visual pass/fail rates for basic shielded metal arc welds.

Given projected deficits and a lack of diversity, there is a critical need to recruit and develop the next generation of the agricultural workforce. The objectives of our study were to evaluate if AgCamp, a one day workshop focused on agriculture delivered through a college student-led service-learning platform: (1) increased high school students' knowledge of agriculture, (2) changed their interests in pursuing degrees and careers in agriculture, and (3) increased their comfort and confidence in communicating with others in agriculture. We hosted high school students at AgCamp and provided them with instruction in animal science, horticulture, and agricultural mechanics. Pre- and post-test survey instruments were developed and distributed at the beginning and end of AgCamp. Data were analyzed with SPSS 26.0 using paired sample t -tests. As a result of attending this outreach initiative, high school students (n  = 26) reported having more knowledge of horticulture (P  < 0.01) and agricultural mechanics (P  < 0.01), but not animal science (P  = 0.12), likely due to greater incoming knowledge of this sub-discipline, as reflected on the pre-test value. High school participants were also more interested in pursuing a college degree (P  = 0.04) and career (P  < 0.01) in agriculture and became more confident approaching other high school students (P  < 0.01), college students (P  < 0.01), and college faculty (P  = 0.01) involved in agriculture. Ultimately, participating in AgCamp stimulated high school students' knowledge and interest in pursuing agricultural degrees and careers, indicating there is value in offering youth outreach as short-term programming to attract students to agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1994, Laird conducted a study using secondary agricultural education teachers across the United States to determine the depth agricultural mechanics skills were being taught at the time, and how important those skills would be in 2004. The researchers conducted a follow up study in 2016, using secondary agricultural education teachers in Iowa as the population. This research compares the findings from both Laird, and the researchers to form a cross-sectional comparison spanning 32 years between the depth skills that were taught in 1994 and the predicted importance of those skills in 2026. Findings from this study show that the overall depth of secondary agricultural mechanics instruction has decreased, but the importance to teach said skills is increasing. Teachers should use this information to prioritize the skills in their curriculum so that the skills with the most perceived importance are being taught in the greatest depth.

The article discusses some common standards of review in the Texas civil appeals and aspects of appellate practice. Topics discussed include the benefits of standards of review, common mistakes of lawyers in handling appeals, differentiating the standard of review from the scope of review, typical standards of review in Texas, abuse of discretion standard of review and the writ of mandamus proceedings in Texas.

Abstract: Coupling aromatic heteronucleophiles to arenes is a common way to assemble drug‐like molecules. Many methods operate via nucleophiles intercepting organometallic intermediates, via Pd‐, Cu‐, and Ni‐catalysis, that facilitate carbon‐heteroatom bond formation and a variety of protocols. We present an alternative, unified strategy where phosphonium salts can replicate the behavior of organometallic intermediates. Under a narrow set of reaction conditions, a variety of aromatic heteronucleophile classes can be coupled to pyridines and diazines that are often problematic in metal‐catalyzed couplings, such as where (pseudo)halide precursors are unavailable in complex structures with multiple polar functional groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the use of dexterity as an indicator of future performance of beginning welders. This could lead to the selection or recruitment of participants for welding training programs. With a high demand for welders, it is imperative that welding training programs be efficient at producing certified welders. The time required to train certified welders is one of the obstacles training programs face. Many occupational fields have tried to predict a student's future performance before admitting them into a training program by analyzing their dexterous ability. This study utilized the Complete Minnesota Dexterity Test to examine participants' dexterity during a welding training program. Upon completion of the training program, participants performed tests welds that were overseen by a certified welding instructor (CWI) who visually inspected each weld. All three dexterity tests were found to have statistically significant relationships with the visual pass/fail rates for basic shielded metal arc welds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1994, Laird conducted a study using secondary agricultural education teachers across the United States to determine the depth agricultural mechanics skills were being taught at the time, and how important those skills would be in 2004. The researchers conducted a follow up study in 2016, using secondary agricultural education teachers in Iowa as the population. This research compares the findings from both Laird, and the researchers to form a cross-sectional comparison spanning 32 years between the depth skills that were taught in 1994 and the predicted importance of those skills in 2026. Findings from this study show that the overall depth of secondary agricultural mechanics instruction has decreased, but the importance to teach said skills is increasing. Teachers should use this information to prioritize the skills in their curriculum so that the skills with the most perceived importance are being taught in the greatest depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plants evolved intracellular immune receptors that belong to the NOD-like receptor (NLR) family to recognize the presence of pathogen-derived effector proteins. NLRs possess an N-terminal Toll-like/IL-1 receptor (TIR) or a non-TIR domain [some of which contain coiled coils (CCs)], a central nucleotide-binding (NB-ARC) domain, and a C-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR). Activation of NLR proteins results in a rapid and high-amplitude immune response, eventually leading to host cell death at the infection site, the so-called hypersensitive response. Despite their important contribution to immunity, the exact mechanisms of NLR activation and signaling remain unknown and are likely heterogenous. We undertook a detailed structure-function analysis of the plasma membrane (PM)-localized CC NLR Resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola 1 (RPM1) using both stable transgenic Arabidopsis and transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana. We report that immune signaling is induced only by activated full-length PM-localized RPM1. Our interaction analyses demonstrate the importance of a functional P-loop for in planta interaction of RPM1 with the small host protein RPM1-interacting protein 4 (RIN4), for constitutive preactivation and postactivation self-association of RPM1 and for proper PM localization. Our results reveal an additive effect of hydrophobic conserved residues in the CC domain for RPM1 function and RPM1 self-association and their necessity for RPM1-RIN4 interaction. Thus, our findings considerably extend our understanding of the mechanisms regulating NLR activation at, and signaling from, the PM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accurate quantification of disease severity is important for the assessment of host-pathogen interactions in laboratory or field settings. The interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana and its naturally occurring downy mildew pathogen, Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis ( Hpa), is a widely used reference pathosystem for plant-oomycete interactions. Current methods for the assessment of disease severity in the Arabidopsis- Hpa interaction rely on measurements at the terminal stage of pathogen development; namely, visual counts of spore-producing structures or the quantification of spore production with a haemocytometer. These assays are useful, but do not offer sensitivity for the robust quantification of small changes in virulence or the accurate quantification of pathogen growth prior to the reproductive stage. Here, we describe a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (q PCR) assay for the monitoring of Hpa growth in planta. The protocol is rapid, inexpensive and can robustly distinguish small changes in virulence. We used this assay to investigate the dynamics of early Hpa mycelial growth and to demonstrate the proof of concept that this assay could be used in screens for novel oomycete growth inhibitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The circadian clock integrates temporal information with environmental cues in regulating plant development and physiology. Recently, the circadian clock has been shown to affect plant responses to biotic cues. To further examine this role of the circadian clock, we tested disease resistance in mutants disrupted in CCA1 and LHY, which act synergistically to regulate clock activity. We found that cca1 and lhy mutants also synergistically affect basal and resistance gene-mediated defense against Pseudomonas syringae and Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis. Disrupting the circadian clock caused by overexpression of CCA1 or LHY also resulted in severe susceptibility to P. syringae. We identified a downstream target of CCA1 and LHY, GRP7, a key constituent of a slave oscillator regulated by the circadian clock and previously shown to influence plant defense and stomatal activity. We show that the defense role of CCA1 and LHY against P. syringae is at least partially through circadian control of stomatal aperture but is independent of defense mediated by salicylic acid. Furthermore, we found defense activation by P. syringae infection and treatment with the elicitor flg22 can feedback-regulate clock activity. Together this data strongly supports a direct role of the circadian clock in defense control and reveal for the first time crosstalk between the circadian clock and plant innate immunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diverse pathogens secrete effector proteins into plant cells to manipulate host cellular processes. Oomycete pathogens contain large complements of predicted effector genes defined by an RXLR host cell entry motif. The genome of Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (Hpa, downy mildew of Arabidopsis) contains at least 134 candidate RXLR effector genes. Only a small subset of these genes is conserved in related oomycetes from the Phytophthora genus. Here, we describe a comparative functional characterization of the Hpa RXLR effector gene HaRxL96 and a homologous gene, PsAvh163, from the Glycine max (soybean) pathogen Phytophthora sojae. HaRxL96 and PsAvh163 are induced during the early stages of infection and carry a functional RXLR motif that is sufficient for protein uptake into plant cells. Both effectors can suppress immune responses in soybean. HaRxL96 suppresses immunity in Nicotiana benthamiana, whereas PsAvh163 induces an HR-like cell death response in Nicotiana that is dependent on RARI and Hsp90.1. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing HaRxL96or PsAvh 163 exhibit elevated susceptibility to virulent and avirulent Hpa, as well as decreased callose deposition in response to non-pathogenic Pseudomonas syringae. Both effectors interfere with defense marker gene induction, but do not affect salicylic acid biosynthesis. Together, these experiments demonstrate that evolutionarily conserved effectors from different oomycete species can suppress immunity in plant species that are divergent from the source pathogen's host. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant pathogens are perceived by pattern recognition receptors, which are activated upon binding to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Ubiquitination and vesicle trafficking have been linked to the regulation of immune signaling. However, little information exists about components of vesicle trafficking involved in immune signaling and the mechanisms that regulate them. In this study, we identified Arabidopsis thaliana Exo70B2, a subunit of the exocyst complex that mediates vesicle tethering during exocytosis, as a target of the plant U-box–type ubiquitin ligase 22 (PUB22), which acts in concert with PUB23 and PUB24 as a negative regulator of PAMP -triggered responses. We show that Exo70B2 is required for both immediate and later responses triggered by all tested PAMPs , suggestive of a role in signaling. Exo70B2 is also necessary for the immune response against different pathogens. Our data demonstrate that PUB22 mediates the ubiquitination and degradation of Exo70B2 via the 26S Proteasome. Furthermore, degradation is regulated by the autocatalytic turnover of PUB22, which is stabilized upon PAMP perception. We therefore propose a mechanism by which PUB22-mediated degradation of Exo70B2 contributes to the attenuation of PAMP -induced signaling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]