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Introduction: Periodontitis is one of the most prevalent diseases occurring worldwide, and is caused by an imbalance of host immunological defenses and microbiome profile which occurs in the oral cavity. This imbalance leads to irregularity and uncontrolled activities of immune cells, resulting in over-reactivity of periodontopathogens and tissue destruction. To alleviate periodontitis, exact targeting of specific events involving particular cells could be a potential application of immunomodulatory agents. Phytochemical drug development targeting specific immunopathogenesis events could be a promising complementary, alternative approach to periodontal therapy. Objectives: This review aimed to explore various events involving a variety of cells in the immunopathogenesis of periodontitis in order to determine potential specific immunomodulation targets for future development of effective phytochemical drugs. Results: Immunopathogenesis of periodontitis contributes significantly to the disease onset and resolution. Various events occur during the disease development, which involve a variety of immune cells and mediators. Among these, neutrophils, cytokines and lymphocytes, especially Th17 cells, were reported to be the most relevant components in the disease pathogenesis. These components affect the initial responses to periodontopathogens, inhibit oxidative stress formation, control intercellular communication to enhance inflammation, and promote effector cells’ migration to induce alveolar bone resorption. Several phytochemical drugs were developed to cure periodontitis, however, the development of phytochemical immunomodulatory drugs to target specific events has not been realized. Conclusion: This review concluded that development of phytochemical immunomodulatory drugs to target particular events generated by neutrophils, pro-inflammatory cytokines and lymphocytes has tremendous potential to regulate and modulate the immunopathogenesis of periodontitis.

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterium, produces pyocyanin, a virulence factor associated with antibiotic tolerance. High concentrations of royal jelly have an antibacterial effect, which may potentially overcome antibacterial resistance. However, in some cases, antibiotic tolerance can occur due to prolonged stress of low-dose antibacterial agents. This study aimed to investigate the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of royal jelly on bacterial growth, pyocyanin production, and biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa. Methods: Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145 and clinical isolates were cultured in a royal jelly-containing medium to test the antibacterial activity. Pyocyanin production was observed by measuring the absorbance at 690 nm after 36 h culture and determined using extinction coefficient 4310 M-1 cm-1. Static microtiter plate biofilm assay performed to detect the biofilm formation, followed by scanning electron microscopy. Results: Royal jelly effectively inhibited the viability of both strains from a concentration of 25%. The highest production of pyocyanin was observed in the subinhibitory concentration group 6.25%, which gradually decreased along with the decrease of royal jelly concentration. Results of one-way ANOVA tests differed significantly in pyocyanin production of the two strains between the royal jelly groups. Tukey HSD test showed concentrations of 12.5%, 6.25%, and 3.125% significantly increased pyocyanin production of ATCC 10145, and the concentrations of 12.5% and 6.25% significantly increased production of the clinical isolates. Concentrations of 12.5% and 6.125% significantly induced biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa ATCC 10145, in line with the results of the SEM analysis. Conclusions: The royal jelly concentration of 25% or higher inhibits bacterial growth; however, the subinhibitory concentration increases pyocyanin production and biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa. It is advisable to determine the appropriate concentration of royal jelly to obtain beneficial virulence inhibiting activity.

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterium, produces pyocyanin, a virulence factor associated with antibiotic tolerance. High concentrations of royal jelly have an antibacterial effect, which may potentially overcome antibacterial resistance. However, in some cases, antibiotic tolerance can occur due to prolonged stress of low-dose antibacterial agents. This study aimed to investigate the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of royal jelly on bacterial growth, pyocyanin production, and biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa. Methods: Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145 and clinical isolates were cultured in a royal jelly-containing medium to test the antibacterial activity. Pyocyanin production was observed by measuring the absorbance at 690 nm after 36 h culture and determined using extinction coefficient 4310 M-1 cm-1. Static microtiter plate biofilm assay performed to detect the biofilm formation, followed by scanning electron microscopy. Results: Royal jelly effectively inhibited the viability of both strains from a concentration of 25%. The highest production of pyocyanin was observed in the subinhibitory concentration group 6.25%, which gradually decreased along with the decrease of royal jelly concentration. Results of one-way ANOVA tests differed significantly in pyocyanin production of the two strains between the royal jelly groups. Tukey HSD test showed concentrations of 12.5%, 6.25%, and 3.125% significantly increased pyocyanin production of ATCC 10145, and the concentrations of 12.5% and 6.25% significantly increased production of the clinical isolates. Concentrations of 12.5% and 6.125% significantly induced biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa ATCC 10145, in line with the results of the SEM analysis. Conclusions: Royal jelly concentrations of 25% or higher can inhibit bacterial growth; however, subinhibitory concentrations could increase pyocyanin production and biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa. It is advisable to determine the appropriate concentration of royal jelly to obtain beneficial virulence inhibiting activity.

Background: Hairdresser is one of the fastest growing occupations in today’s society. Hairdresser help styling, cutting, colouring, perming, curling, straightening hair and various treatment to customer. Somehow, hairdresser are constantly exposed to chemical substances such as aromatic amines, hydrogen peroxide, thioglycolic acid, formaldehyde in hair products which can cause damage to human’s genome. Micronucleus is one of the effective biomarker for processes associated with the induction of DNA damage. Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the micronucleus frequencies in buccal mucosa epithelial cells of hairdresser who were exposed to chemical of hair products. Method: This study was conducted on twenty female subjects, who were divided into 2 groups: exposed and non-exposed (control) group. All subjects recruited were working in the same beauty salon. Buccal cells were obtained from each individual by using cytobrush. The cells were stained with modified Feulgen-Ronssenback method and counting of micronucleus per 1000 cell was done under light microscope. The data were analyzed using independent t-test and one-way Anova (pResult: The result showed a significant difference in micronucleus frequency between 2 groups. There were a significantly increase of micronucleus frequency in hairdressers and increase of micronucleus frequency with the longer duration of exposure. Conclusion: It concluded that the chemical substances of hair products had affected the micronucleus frequency ofthe epithelial cells in buccal mucosa of hairdressers.

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterium, produces pyocyanin, a virulence factor associated with antibiotic tolerance. High concentrations of royal jelly have an antibacterial effect, which may potentially overcome antibacterial resistance. However, in some cases, antibiotic tolerance can occur due to prolonged stress of low-dose antibacterial agents. This study aimed to investigate the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of royal jelly on bacterial growth, pyocyanin production, and biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa. Methods: Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145 and clinical isolates were cultured in a royal jelly-containing medium to test the antibacterial activity. Pyocyanin production was observed by measuring the absorbance at 690 nm after 36 h culture and determined using extinction coefficient 4310 M-1 cm-1. Static microtiter plate biofilm assay performed to detect the biofilm formation, followed by scanning electron microscopy. Results: Royal jelly effectively inhibited the viability of both strains from a concentration of 25%. The highest production of pyocyanin was observed in the subinhibitory concentration group 6.25%, which gradually decreased along with the decrease of royal jelly concentration. Results of one-way ANOVA tests differed significantly in pyocyanin production of the two strains between the royal jelly groups. Tukey HSD test showed concentrations of 12.5%, 6.25%, and 3.125% significantly increased pyocyanin production of ATCC 10145, and the concentrations of 12.5% and 6.25% significantly increased production of the clinical isolates. Concentrations of 12.5% and 6.125% significantly induced biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa ATCC 10145, in line with the results of the SEM analysis. Conclusions: The royal jelly concentration of 25% or higher inhibits bacterial growth; however, the subinhibitory concentration increases pyocyanin production and biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa . It is advisable to determine the appropriate concentration of royal jelly to obtain beneficial virulence inhibiting activity.

Background: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterium, produces pyocyanin, a virulence factor associated with antibiotic tolerance. High concentrations of royal jelly have an antibacterial effect, which may potentially overcome antibacterial resistance. However, in some cases, antibiotic tolerance can occur due to prolonged stress of low-dose antibacterial agents. This study aimed to investigate the effect of subinhibitory concentrations of royal jelly on bacterial growth, pyocyanin production, and biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa. Methods: Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145 and clinical isolates were cultured in a royal jelly-containing medium to test the antibacterial activity. Pyocyanin production was observed by measuring the absorbance at 690 nm after 36 h culture and determined using extinction coefficient 4310 M-1 cm-1. Static microtiter plate biofilm assay performed to detect the biofilm formation, followed by scanning electron microscopy. Results: Royal jelly effectively inhibited the viability of both strains from a concentration of 25%. The highest production of pyocyanin was observed in the subinhibitory concentration group 6.25%, which gradually decreased along with the decrease of royal jelly concentration. Results of one-way ANOVA tests differed significantly in pyocyanin production of the two strains between the royal jelly groups. Tukey HSD test showed concentrations of 12.5%, 6.25%, and 3.125% significantly increased pyocyanin production of ATCC 10145, and the concentrations of 12.5% and 6.25% significantly increased production of the clinical isolates. Concentrations of 12.5% and 6.125% significantly induced biofilm formation of P. aeruginosa ATCC 10145, in line with the results of the SEM analysis. Conclusions: The royal jelly concentration of 25% or higher inhibits bacterial growth; however, the subinhibitory concentration increases pyocyanin production and biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa . It is advisable to determine the appropriate concentration of royal jelly to obtain beneficial virulence inhibiting activity.