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The paper delves into the development and intricacies of international legal frameworks for intellectual property (IP) rights protection and commercialization, focusing on agreements like the Paris and Berne Conventions. It outlines the evolution from initial measures safeguarding industrial property to broader copyright and trademark protections, facilitated by entities such as the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is highlighted for establishing minimum standards for IP protection and enforcement, integrating provisions for dispute resolution, and managing the balance between IP holders’ interests and the public good. TRIPS’ role in addressing challenges posed by differing national norms and its efforts to mitigate IP rights abuse through limitations and exceptions, known as the Three-Step Test, are emphasized. This analysis underscores the importance of a fair and balanced IP system that promotes global innovation and creativity, acknowledging the need for a harmonious integration of varied national laws within the global trade and IP protection landscape.

This study explores the evolving role of universities in the modern economy, focusing on their transformation from traditional centers of education and research to dynamic hubs of entrepreneurship and technology transfer. Drawing from Schumpeter’s theory of entrepreneurship, which emphasizes the critical role of innovation and the entrepreneur in catalysing economic change, this paper argues that contemporary universities have adopted a third mission of economic development, complementing their foundational roles in teaching and research. The paper introduces the concept of the entrepreneurial university, a term that captures the institution’s enhanced involvement in technological innovation and its contribution to economic growth through the commercialization of research. The research discusses various models of innovation that have shaped our understanding of the knowledge transfer process, including the linear model of innovation, the triple helix model, and the open innovation model. These models provide a theoretical framework for analysing the mechanisms through which universities contribute to the economy, highlighting the importance of collaboration between academia, industry, and government. The paper pays particular attention to the role of Technology Transfer Entities (TTEs) within universities, which are instrumental in managing intellectual property, licensing inventions, and fostering partnerships with external stakeholders. Through a comprehensive analysis, the paper reveals that while the financial benefits of knowledge transfer from universities are increasingly recognized, there remains a significant research gap in understanding how university knowledge can be effectively transformed into economic benefits. This gap is particularly pronounced in the context of transition economies, where data on knowledge transfer mechanisms and their impact on innovation and economic growth is scarce. The study emphasizes the need for a multidimensional approach to assess the effectiveness of university TTEs, considering individual, organizational, and ecosystem-level characteristics.

The technological transfer entities can obtain income by establishing robust partnerships with the business environment and using the fiscal facilities offered by the region where they produce the innovation, applying for non-refundable funds, attracting individual donors, charging a membership contribution to the organization members, exploitation of innovation produced by the sale of intellectual property. A robust innovation ecosystem is based on public and private investments which complement each other to reduce the risks and to divide profits by increasing the capacity of innovation and technological transfer of the technological transfer entities. The Gauss distributions are continuous probability distributions. These are” normal” distributions which illustrate the likelihood that a certain event takes place. A gauss distribution has the shape of a bell with most values distributed around the average value and can be fully described by variance and mean. A classic example is the distribution of patents value or profit obtained because of sale of intellectual property rights. The Pareto-type distributions are found in other phenomena around us, such as the size of economic entities follows a Pareto distribution. Pareto-type distributions are more suitable to describe the economic phenomena than the Gauss distributions, for instance, 80% of the world richness is held by 20% of population (principle 80-20 which means 80% of results are caused by 20% of causes). The innovation phenomenon is deeply systemic, multifactorial, multifunctional, dynamic and complex, determined by the whole socio-economic background which influences the innovation ecosystem. Therefore, its study for the highlighting of the intervention opportunities at level of fiscal and financial policies, but also at operational level, requires an adequate, multilateral and complete systemic approach.

The article investigates the impact of various funding sources on Technology Transfer Entities (TTEs), including government support, private sector investments, grants, and European funds. It emphasizes the crucial role these financial mechanisms play in enabling TTEs to bridge the gap between academic research and commercial application. By analyzing the influence of government funding, the significance of licensing and patent revenues, and the benefits of private and European investments, the article demonstrates how these resources assist TTEs in achieving financial stability, fostering innovation commercialization, and navigating the market. It also highlights the importance of aligning TTEs' goals with broader societal and economic objectives. Through case studies, the research illustrates the essential need for a diverse funding strategy and effective management for TTEs to optimize their contribution to the technological innovation ecosystem, economic growth, and societal well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]