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Background High losses of sorghum crops due to fungal diseases, such as grain mold and stalk rot, are economically harmful and cause increased use of environmentally damaging chemical fungicides, which also are detrimental to human health. Hence, finding safe and effective ways to manage fungal diseases of sorghum is urgently needed. Results In the present study, the antagonistic activities of Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum against different pathogenic fungal strains were evaluated in vitro using a dual culture assay. Furthermore, the anti-mycotic activity of Trichoderma spp. culture filtrates was evaluated against different fungal strains using a food poisoning technique. Additionally, the antifungal activities of ethyl acetate extracts of T. viride and T. harzianum against different pathogens were evaluated using a disk diffusion method. As indicated by the dual culture assay, T. harzianum suppressed 66.8, 69.5, 68.7, 54.6, 84.12, and 71.39% of the mycelial growth of Curvularia lunata, Exserohilum rostratum, Fusarium chlamydosporum, F. incarnatum, F. proliferatum, and Macrophomina phaseolina, respectively. T. viride was more effective for controlling the growth of these pathogens, inhibiting 81.0, 89.0, 63.0, 70.7, 84.4, and 71.8% of mycelial growth, respectively. Both E. rostratum and M. phaseolina showed resistance to carbendazim fungicide at all tested concentrations, whereas the fungicidal concentrations of carbendazim against C. lunata, F. chlamydosporum, and F. incarnatum strains were 2.50, 1.50, and 2.00 ppm, respectively. Furthermore, F. proliferatum was sensitive to carbendazim fungicide at all tested concentrations. Antifungal assays of the ethyl acetate extracts of T. viride and T. harzianum indicated the potent activity of these extracts against fungal phytopathogens with different susceptibility patterns. F. chlamydosporum was the most sensitive to the extracts of T. viride and T. harzianum with minimum inhibitory concentrations of 0.5 and 1.0 mg/disk, respectively. Conclusion The potent suppression of sorghum phytopathogens by T. viride and T. harzianum makes them potential sources of safe and effective natural fungicides compared to carbendazim fungicide.

This paper presents an experimental and finite element (FE) investigation into the local-overall buckling interaction behaviour of axially loaded cold-formed steel (CFS) channel section columns. Current design guidelines from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Australian and New Zealand Standards (AS/NZS) recommend the use of a non-dimensional strength curve for determining the axial capacity of such CFS channel section columns. This study has reviewed the accuracy of the current AISI (2016), AS/NZS (2018) and Eurocode (EN 1993-1-3) design guidelines for determining the axial capacity of CFS channel sections under local-overall buckling interaction failure. A total of 40 tests were conducted on CFS channel sections covering stub, short, intermediate, and slender columns with varying thicknesses. A nonlinear FE model was then developed and validated against the test results. The validated FE model was used to conduct a parametric study comprising 70 FE models to review the accuracy of the current design guidelines in accordance with AISI (2016), AS/NZS (2018) and Eurocode (EN 1993-1-3). It was found that the AISI (2016) and AS/NZS (2018) are conservative by 10 to 15% on average when determining the axial capacity of pin-ended CFS channel section columns undergoing local-overall buckling interaction. Eurocode (EN 1993-1-3) design rules were found to lead to considerably more conservative predictions of column axial load capacity for CFS channels.This paper has therefore proposed modifications to the current design rules of AISI (2016) and AS/NZS (2018). The accuracy of proposed design rules was verified using the FE analysis and test results of CFS channel section columns undergoing local-overall buckling interaction.

Objectives Cancer is the most common cause of death every year. Moreover, high incidence of bacterial resistance to the most frequently used antibiotics contributes a significant death and disability worldwide. Hence, formulation of novel antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic agents is required. Methods In the current study, the antibacterial efficiency of clove extracts (acetonic, dichloromethane, ethanolic, and petroleum ether) against four pathogenic bacterial strains [Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)] was estimated by disc diffusion method. Furthermore, the anticancer potency of S. aromaticum extracts against HCT human colon carcinoma was appraised using MTT assay. The phytochemical ingredients of the most effective extract were determined using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis. Results and conclusion The dichloromethane extract presented the highest antibacterial potency against the pathogenic isolates recording minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1 mg/disc against MRSA strain and 0.5 mg/disc against both of E. coli and S. typhi strains. Furthermore, the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of clove dichloromethane extract was recoded at 2 mg/disc against MRSA stain, and 1 mg/disc against E. coli and S. typhi strains. The dichloromethane extract of clove showed the lowest cytotoxic activity against HCT cell line whereas, the ethanolic extract exerted the highest efficacy with relative IC50 of 6.71 and 2.53 µg/ml respectively. GC–MS analysis revealed that the clove dichloromethane extract was comprised of eugenol (50.65%) and eugenyl acetate (12.54%) as major active components. In conclusion, clove extracts could be utilized as potential antibacterial and anticarcinogenic agents.

Background Saprolegniasis often cause a significant economic losses to fish hatchery and intensive fish industry. The treatment of saprolegnoid diseases with malachite green seems to have harmful effect and is considered as a mutagenic and carcinogenic substance. The teratogenic and carcinogenic potential of malachite green increased the necessity to find an effective alternative treatment to control the disease. Methods In the present study, seven fungicides used in agriculture were investigated to control Saprolegnia parasitica and S. diclina in vitro. The antifungal activity of each fungicide was compared with that of malachite green as reference fungicide using food poisoning technique. Fish toxicity of the effective fungicides was performed to detect the most applicable fungicides in fish aquarium. Results Four of seven fungicides were found to be effective against the two saprolegnoid fungi. Azoxystrobin and metalaxyl were the most effective fungicides inhibited fungal growth of the two saprolegnoid fungi completely at concentration of 200 ppm and 250 ppm respectively while cyazofamid and etridiazole were moderately effective. Acute toxicity assay of the two effective fungicides showed metalaxyl was low toxic to fish with LC50 of 360 ppm while azoxystrobin was 225 ppm. Hence, it was confirmed that 200 and 250 ppm of azoxystrobin and metalaxyl which completely inhibited mycelial growth of the saprolegniod fungi could be safely used for saprolegniasis control. Conclusion These fungicides which proved to be effective and fishery safer may be applicable as a aquatic fungicides avoiding teratogenic and carcinogenic risk of malachite green.

Vulvovaginal candidiasis is a common health problem affecting about 75% of women at reproductive age. Teratogenicity and fetal toxicity resulting from antifungal therapy during pregnancy necessitates formulation of novel therapeutic agents. Disk diffusion method was performed to evaluate the antifungal activity of Mentha longifolia extracts against different candidal strains. Moreover, the anticancer activity of different M. longifolia extracts against MCF7 breast cancer cell line was evaluated by MTT assay. The M. longifolia n-hexane extract exhibited the highest antifungal activity, while the methanolic extract showed no antimicrobial activity against the tested Candida strains. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of n-hexane extract was 250 µg/disk against C. tropicalis while it was 500 µg/disk against C. albicans and C. glabrata. Minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) was 0.5 mg/disk against C. albicans and C. tropicalis, and 1 mg/disk against C. glabrata. GC–MS analysis of the n-hexane extract was performed to detect the active phytochemical components. Menthone (18.37%) was the main phytochemical active component of n-hexane extract followed by butyloctanol (16.13%), 1,5-(1-Bromo-1-methylethyl)-2-methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one (14.89%), α-tocopherol (13.13%), eugenol (12.21%), α-resorcylamide (11.56%), citronellal (3.71%), butylated hydroxytoluene (3.21%), isocaryophyllene (2.81%), 2-hexyldecanol (2.12%) and tau-cadinol (1.87%). The methanolic extract exhibited the highest anticancer activity against MCF7 breast cancer cell line while diethyl ether extract exhibited the lowest activity with IC50 of 91.67 and 244.70 µg/ml respectively. M. longifolia extracts could be used as a potential source of novel anticandidal and anti-carcinogenic therapeutic agents. Keywords: Vulvovaginal candidiasis, Mentha longifolia, Anti-candida, Minimum inhibitory concentration, Cytotoxicity, Phytochemicals

Grape seed extract (GSE) is a natural source of polyphenolic compounds and secondary metabolites, which have been tested for their possible antimicrobial activities. In the current study, we tested the antibacterial and antifungal activities of aqueous GSE and the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles loaded with GSE (GSE-AgNPs) against different pathogens. The biosynthesized GSE-AgNPs were assessed by UV spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The antimicrobial activities were assessed against different bacterial and fungal species. DLS analysis showed that GSE-AgNPs had a Z-Average of 91.89 nm while UV spectroscopy showed that GSE-AgNPs had the highest absorbance at a wavelength of ~415 nm. FTIR analysis revealed that both of GSE and GSE-AgNPs consisted of different functional groups, such as hydroxyl, alkenes, alkyne, and aromatic rings. Both FE-SEM and TEM showed that GSE-AgNPs had larger sizes and rough surfaces than GSE and AgNO3. The results showed significant antimicrobial activities of GSE-AgNPs against all tested species, unlike GSE, which had weaker and limited effects. More studies are needed to investigate the other antimicrobial activities of GSE.

Background Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) represents a universal health hazard that contributes to significant morbidity in women. Resistance of Candida to antifungal therapy has been reported as a public health problem. So, the objective of our current study is to detect resistance profile of different candidal strains. Methods In this study, isolated Candida strains were identified by conventional methods, confirmed by internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing, and phylogenetically analyzed with reference strains in GenBank. Also, sensitivity of different Candida strains to common antifungal agents was evaluated by disc diffusion method. Results Candida albicans was identified as the most frequent strain (63%) followed by non-albicans strains, such as C. glabrata (20%), C. tropicalis (13%), and C. krusei (4%). Sensitivity of Candida strains (C. albicans, C. tropicalis and C. glabrata) to commonly used antifungal agents was evaluated through the disc diffusion method. C. glabrata was the most resistant strain and considered to be a multidrug-resistant pathogen, while both, C. albicans and C. tropicalis showed high susceptibility to terbinafine. In contrast, C. albicans showed resistance to fluconazole, clotrimazole, and nystatin, while C. tropicalis, considered as the most sensitive strain, was susceptible to all the antifungal agents tested except nystatin. Terbinafine was the most effective antifungal agent against both C. tropicalis and C. albicans, and hence its minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) for C. albicans and C. tropicalis were evaluated. MICs of terbinafine against C. albicans and C. tropicalis were 5 μg/ml and 2.5 μg/ml, while their MFCs were 10 μg/ml and 5 μg/ml, respectively. Conclusion The emergence of resistant Candida strains necessitates conduction of the antifungal susceptibility test prior to deciding the medication regime.

Background Candida vaginitis is a global health hazard that increases morbidity among women of childbearing age. Recent studies have revealed a high incidence of drug-resistant Candida strains. Additionally, treating Candida vulvovaginitis during pregnancy is challenging as antifungal therapy is associated with fetal abnormalities. Hence, it is important to develop novel therapeutic strategies to treat vulvovaginal candidiasis. Methods In this study, we used the disc diffusion method to evaluate the anticandidal activity of different Syzygium aromaticum extracts (methanol, ethyl acetate, n-hexane, and diethyl ether) against C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis. Furthermore, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of different S. aromaticum extracts was performed to determine active components exhibiting anticandidal activity. Cytotoxicity of different clove extracts against the HUH7 cell line was evaluated. Results The ethyl acetate extract exhibited the highest antifungal activity against C. albicans, C. glabrata, and C. tropicalis with inhibition zone diameters of 20.9, 14.9, and 30.7 mm, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration of the S. aromaticum ethyl acetate extract was 250 μg/disc against C. tropicalis, and 500 μg/disc against C. albicans and C. glabrata, while the minimum fungicidal concentration was 0.5 mg/disc against C. tropicalis and 1 mg/disc against the C. albicans and C. glabrata. GC-MS analysis of the ethyl acetate extract revealed the main bioactive compound as eugenol (58.88%), followed by eugenyl acetate (23.86%), trans-caryophyllene (14.44%), and α-humulene (1.88%). The cytotoxicity assay indicated that the diethyl ether extract demonstrated the lowest toxicological effect against the HUH7 cell line, with a relative IC50 of 62.43 μg/ml; the methanolic extract demonstrated a higher toxicity (IC50, 24.17 μg/ml). Conclusion As the S. aromaticum extract exhibited high antifungal activity at low concentrations, it can be a potential source of natural antifungal drugs.

Due to environmental concern, the research to date has tended to focus on how textile dye removal can be carried out in a greener manner. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the decolorization and biotransformation pathway of Mordant Orange-1 (MO-1) by Cylindrocephalum aurelium RY06 (C. aurelium RY06). Decolorization study was conducted in a batch experiment including the investigation of the effects of physio-chemical parameters. Enzymatic activity of C. aurelium RY06 during the decolorization was also investigated. Moreover, transformation and biodegradation of MO-1 by C. aurelium RY06 were observed using the gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Manganese peroxidase, lignin peroxidase, laccase, 1,2-dioxygenase, and 2,3-dioxygenase enzymes were detected during the decolorization. In general, the present work concluded that the MO-1 was successfully degraded by C. aurelium RY06 and transformed to be maleic acid and to be isophtalic acid.

Presently, the bioprocessing of agricultural residues to various bioactive compounds is of great concern, with the potential to be used as plant growth promoters and as a reductive of various diseases. Lycopersiconesculentum, one of the most consumed crops in the human diet, is attacked by Fusarium wilt disease, so the main aim is to biocontrol the pathogen. Several fungal species were isolated from decayed maize stover (MS). Trichodermaasperellum was chosen based on its organic acid productivity and was molecularly identified (GenBank accession number is MW195019). Citric acid (CA) was the major detected organic acid by HPLC. In vitro, CA of T.asperellum at 75% completely repressed the growth of Fusariumoxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (FOL). In vivo, soaking tomato seeds in CA enhanced the seed germination and vigor index. T. asperellum and/or its CA suppressed the wilt disease caused by FOL compared to control. There was a proportional increment of plant growth and yield, as well as improvements in the biochemical parameters (chlorophyll pigments, total phenolic contents and peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase activities), suggesting targeting both the bioconversion of MS into CA and biological control of FOL.

Bacillus velezensis manifests robust biocontrol activity against fungal plant pathogens, however, its antiviral activity has rarely been investigated. Bacillus velezensis strain PEA1 was isolated, characterized, and evaluated for antifungal and antiviral activities against Fusarium oxysporum MT270445 and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) MN594112. Our findings proved that strain PEA1 had intense antagonist activity against F.oxysporum. Under greenhouse conditions, the antiviral activities (protective, curative, and inactivation) of PEA1-culture filtrate (CF) on Datura stramonium plants were assayed, using a half-leaf method. The inactivation treatment exhibited the highest inhibition rate (97.56%) and the most considerable reduction of CMV-CP accumulation levels (2.1-fold) in PEA1-CF-treated plants when compared with untreated plants (26.9-fold). Furthermore, PEA1-CF induced systemic resistance with significantly elevated transcriptional levels of PAL, CHS, HQT, PR-1, and POD genes in D. stramonium leaves after all treatments. Gas chromatography‒mass spectrometry analysis showed that pyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrazine-1,4-dione is the main compound in the PEA1-CF ethyl acetate extract, which may act as an elicitor molecule that induces plant systemic resistance and inhibits both fungal growth and viral replication. Consequently, B. velezensis can be considered as a potential source for the production of bioactive compounds for the management of plant diseases. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the antiviral activity of B. velezensis against plant viral infection.

The Batchwa vacha, Eutropiichthys vacha is commercially important, supporting a viable small- and large-scale fishery throughout the Ganges River, NW Bangladesh. This study provides detail information on reproduction of E. vacha including size at sexual maturity, spawning and peak spawning season, and fecundity based on 734 female specimens through regular monthly sampling using cast net, gill net, and square lift net in the Ganges River during January to December 2016. Also, our study estimated the effects of climate change including temperature and rainfall on reproduction of E. vacha in the Ganges River. For each individual, lengths (total length, TL; standard length, SL) and body weight (BW) were measured with slide caliper and digital balance, respectively. Gonads (ovaries) were collected carefully by ventral dissection of each female specimen and weighed to the nearest 0.01 g accuracy. The gonadosomatic index (GSI % = (GW/BW) ×100), modified gonadosomatic index (MGSI % = (GW/BW − GW) × 100), and Dobriyal index (DI = $$ \sqrt[3]{\mathrm{GW}} $$ ) were calculated to estimate the size at sexual maturity (L50) and spawning season. Based on GSI, MGSI, and DI, the L50 was calculated as 12.5 cm TL for female. The TL50, the TL at which 50% of individuals become mature, was calculated by logistic equation as 12.7 cm. Also, on the basis of higher values of GSI, MGSI, and DI, spawning season was ranged from April to August, with the peak in June–July, signifying the peak spawning season for E. vacha in the Ganges River. The total fecundity (FT) ranged from 4800 to 77,976 (mean ± SD, 31384 ± 23,747) and was highly correlated with TL and BW. Water temperature during the spawning period ranged from 28 to 34 °C, with an average of 31 °C and there was significant correlation between temperature and GSI. Also, the spawning season coincides with the peak rainfall and there was significant correlation between rainfall and GSI. Additionally, analysis of long data series indicated that annual average air temperature is increasing by 0.0258 °C/year, while the annual average rainfall is decreasing by 3.107 mm/year. Finally, the findings of this study would be very effective to impose specific management for E. vacha in the Ganges River and surrounding ecosystems.

Streptomyces griseorubens E44G is a chitinolytic bacterium isolated from cultivated soil in Saudi Arabia (a hot, arid climatic region). In vitro, antifungal potential of S. griseorubens E44G was assessed against the phytopathogenic fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (the causative agent of the Fusarium wilt disease of tomato). An inhibition zone of 24 mm was recorded. The chitinolytic activity of S. griseorubens E44G was proved when the colloidal chitin agar plate method was used. A thermostable chitinase enzyme of 45 kDa molecular weight was purified using gel filtration chromatography. The optimum activity was obtained at 60 °C and pH 5.5. The purified enzyme has shown a very pronounced activity against the phytopathogenic fungus, F. oxysporum. The molecular characterization of the chitinase gene indicated that it consists of 1218 bp encoding 407 amino acids. The phylogentic analysis based on the nucleotide DNA sequence and the deduced amino acids sequence showed high similarity percentages with other chitinases isolated from different Streptomyces species. In the field evaluation, application of both S. griseorubens E44G treatments significantly increased all tested growth and yield parameters and decreased the disease severity compared with the infected-untreated tomato plants suggesting potential as a biocontrol agent.

Two molecularly identified tomato isolates, Trichoderma asperelloides Ta41 and Rhizoctonia solani Rs33, were characterized and antagonistically evaluated. The dual culture technique showed that Ta41 had a high antagonistic activity of 83.33%, while a light microscope bioassay demonstrated that the Ta41 isolate over-parasitized the pathogen completely. Under greenhouse conditions, the application of Ta41 was able to promote tomato plant growth and had a significant increase in plant height, root length, and shoot fresh, shoot dry, root fresh, and root dry weight. It also improved chlorophyll content and total phenol content significantly, both in protective and in curative treatments. The protective treatment assay exhibited the lowest disease index (16.00%), while the curative treatment showed a disease index of 33.33%. At 20 days post-inoculation, significant increases in the relative expression levels of four defense-related genes (PR-1, PR-2, PR-3, and CHS) were observed in all Ta41-treated plants when compared with the non-treated plants. Interestingly, the plants treated with Ta41 alone showed the highest expression, with relative transcriptional levels of CHS, PR-3, PR-1, and PR-2 that were, compared with the control, 3.91-, 3.13-, 2.94-, and 2.69-fold higher, respectively, and the protective treatment showed relative transcriptional levels that were 3.50-, 3.63-, 2.39-, and 2.27-fold higher, respectively. Consequently, the ability of Ta41 to promote tomato growth, suppress Rs33 growth, and induce systemic resistance supports the incorporation of Ta41 as a potential bioagent for controlling root rot disease and increasing the productivity of crops, including tomatoes.

The Sclerotium tuber rot fungus (Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.) represents a serious problem for Jerusalem artichoke (JA) tubers during storage periods. The aim of this study was to investigate an alternative preservation method using a natural essential oil to inhibit the fungal growth, increase storability, and keep nutritive value of JA tubers under storage conditions. In vitro antifungal activity was assessed using two essential oils; caraway and spearmint at concentrations of 2, 3, 4 and 5 %. Among the tested treatments, caraway oil at 2 % resulted in complete inhibition of the fungal growth. In the storage experiment, two preservation methods were applied using caraway oil. In the first method, JA tubers were treated with caraway oil at 2 %, kept in perforated polyethylene bags and stored at 4 °C and 90 % relative humidity (RH). In the second method, JA tubers were treated with caraway oil at 2 %, kept between peat moss layers and stored at room temperature (25/10 °C, day /night) and 70 % RH. Comparing with the infected-untreated control, tubers infected with S. rolfsii and treated with caraway oil which kept in peat moss exhibited lower severity of Sclerotium tuber rot, sprouting percentage and weight loss. On the other hand, this treatment led to the highest dry matter and contents of carbohydrates, protein, inulin and total phenols as well as the activity of peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes. Based on the obtained results we recommend the use of caraway oil and peat moss when storing JA tubers at room temperature due to its eco-safety and saving of the cooling energy.

Globally, plant viral infection is one of the most difficult challenges of food security, where considerable losses in crop production occur. Nanoparticles are an effective control agent against numerous plant pathogens. However, there is limited knowledge concerning their effects against viral infection. In the present study, the green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using aqueous leaf extract of Mentha spicata was achieved. X-ray diffraction patterns confirmed the crystalline nature of the prepared ZnO NPs. Dynamic light scattering and scanning electron microscopy analyses revealed that the resultant ZnO NPs were spherical in shape with a particle size ranged from 11 to 88 nm. Fourier transmission infrared spectroscopy detected different functional groups, capping and stability agents, and showed Zn-O bond within wavenumber of 487 cm&minus, 1. Under greenhouse conditions, the antiviral activity of biological synthesized ZnO NPs (100 &micro, g/mL) against Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was evaluated. The double foliar application of the prepared ZnO NPs, 24 h before and 24 h after TMV-inoculation, was the most effective treatment that showed a 90.21% reduction of viral accumulation level and disease severity. Additionally, the transcriptional levels of PAL, PR-1 (salicylic acid marker gene), CHS, and POD genes were induced and up-regulated in all ZnO NPs treated plants. Notably, the results exhibited that aqueous extract of Mentha spicata was an effective reducing agent for the green synthesis of ZnO NPs, which showed significant antiviral activity. Finally, the detected protective and curative activity of ZnO NPs against TMV can encourage us to recommend its application for plant viral disease management. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the antiviral activity of the green synthesized ZnO NPs.

Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) causes significant losses in the global agricultural production of crops such as potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Transcriptional levels of 10 innate defense genes, five related to the polyphenol biosynthetic pathway (PAL, HQT, HCT, CHS, and CHI) and five pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-1, PR-2, PR-3, PR-5 and PR-7) were investigated at different days post-inoculation (dpi). The results revealed that fluctuations in the expression of these examined defense genes between induction and suppression, especially in the first 10 dpi, are common. Interestingly, greater up-regulation of most of the tested genes at 4 dpi was associated with greater down-regulation of PR-2 and a reduction in viral coat protein (CP) accumulation. Conversely, greater activation and accumulation of the virus at 10 dpi suppressed the expressions of all genes except PR-1 (salicylic marker gene), and CHI genes showed 1.189- and 1.028-fold changes respectively. At 30 dpi, the greatest level of AMV-CP accumulation (42.27-fold) was associated with severe symptoms that started appearing at 18 dpi. Consequently, at 30 dpi, none of these genes had an effect on the presence and multiplication of the virus inside the plant cell. This study provides the first valuable information of the molecular transcriptional levels of these potato genes under AMV infection.

The high incidence of Candidal vulvovaginitis (CVV) among pregnant women and its treatment during pregnancy is a challenge as the antifungal therapy is associated with foetal abnormalities. Additionally, various Candida species exhibit resistance to commonly used antifungal agents. Hence, there is a need to develop new therapeutic strategies against CVV. In the present study, we have evaluated the antifungal activity of cinnamon extracted by four solvents with different degrees of polarity against common Candida pathogens. The ethyl acetate extract of cinnamon was the most effective solvent extract and exhibited the highest antifungal activity against Candida albicans , Candid atropicalis and Candida glabrata , with an inhibition zone diameter of 32.47, 32.1 and 16.7 mm respectively. GC-MS revealed that cinnamon ethyl acetate extract comprised of 1-phenylpropene-3.3-diol diacetate (68.5%), eugenol (11.6%), cinnamic acid (8.2%), cinnamaldehyde (6.1%) and 6-ethyl-3,4- dimethylphenol (5.4%). Minimum inhibitory concentration of cinnamon ethyl acetate extract against C. albicans and C. tropicalis was 0.5 mg/disc, while that against C. glabrata was 1 mg/disc. Minimum fungicidal concentration of cinnamon ethyl acetate extract against C. tropicalis was 1 mg/disc, while that against C. albicans and C. glabrata was 2 mg/disc respectively.

Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) replacement on the length change of high-performance concrete (HPC). Nine concrete mixtures at w/cm ratio of 0.33 were cast using two silica fume blended cements of different fineness and two sources of GGBFS at three levels of GGBFS replacement (25%, 35% and 50%) as well as the use of a shrinkage-reducing admixture (SRA). The length changes due to autogenous and drying shrinkage were lower for the 50% and 35% GGBFS replacement as well as by use of a shrinkage reducing admixture compared to the mixture with 25% GGBFS replacement. Furthermore, the total drying shrinkage of all the concrete mixtures tested were in compliance with the 400 microstrain shrinkage limit specified for low-shrinkage concrete in the Canadian CSA A23.1 standard. The test results have also shown that while increased fineness of the silica fume blended cement increased the compressive strength of concrete, it also resulted in increased drying shrinkage with increased cracking potential.

Antagonistic actinomycete strains isolated from the environment are valuable tools for an eco-friendly, healthy, and safe control of phytopathogenic fungi. We have evaluated the culture filtrate of Streptomyces griseorubens E44G, an actinomycete strain isolated from soil, on the growth and ultrastructure of hyphal cells of the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, the causal agent of Fusarium wilt disease of tomato. The effect of the Streptomyces culture filtrate on some of the carbohydrate fractions in the hyphal cell of the pathogen using gold-labeled lectin complexes was also elucidated. Of the concentrations of S. griseorubens E44G culture filtrate tested, the highest (400 μL) had the most potent antifungal effect on the mycelial growth of the fungus. At this concentration, some changes in the morphology of the fungal hyphae were observed by scanning electron microscopy, and a number of dramatic changes in the ultrastructure of the hyphal cells of the fungus were observed by transmission electron microscopy. Ultracytochemical localization of carbohydrate fractions of the hyphal cell of the fungus revealed the presence of a very high quantity of chitin in the cell wall which was digested following exposure to the culture filtrate of S. griseorubens E44G, indicating the presence of a chitinase enzyme in that filtrate. The ultracytochemical investigations also indicated the presence of mannose, glucose, and galactose in the fungal cell wall, as well as the absence of glucosides. Moreover, the fungal cell cytoplasm contained glucosides and galactose but not chitin. These results confirm that the chitinase enzyme was produced by S. griseorubens E44G and that this enzyme may play a role in the potential of this strain as an antifungal agent against F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici.

One hundred samples of tomato seeds were collected in 2011 and 2012 from tomato-cultivated fields in Saudi Arabia and screened for their seed-borne mycoflora. A total of 30 genera and 57 species of fungi were recovered from the collected seed samples using agar plate and deep-freezing blotter methods. The two methods differed as regards the frequency of recovered seed-borne fungi. Seven fungi among those recovered from tomato seeds, which are known as plant pathogens, were tested for their pathogenicity and transmission on tomato seedlings. The recovery rate of these pathogens gradually decreased from root up to the upper stem, and did not reach to the stem apex. The distribution of tomato seed-borne fungi was also investigated throughout Saudi Arabia. In this concern, Al-Madena governorate recorded the highest incidence of fungal flora associated with tomato seeds. The impact of meteorological variables on the distribution of tomato seed-borne mycoflora was explored using the ordination technique (canonical correspondence analysis). Among all climatic factors, relative humidity was the most influential variable in this regard. Our findings may provide a valuable contribution to our understanding of future global disease change and may be used also to predict disease occurrence and fungal transfer to new uninfected areas.

Efficacy of Some Plant Extracts AgainstRhizoctonia Solanion PeaAntifungal activity of ethanol-water extracts of four medicinal plants, cinnamon (Cinnamomum verumPresl.), anise (Pimpinella anisumL.), black seed (Nigella sativaL.) and clove (Syzygium aromaticumL. Merr. & Perry.) was investigated against pea (Pisum sativumL.) root-rot fungusRhizoctonia solani. In vitroantifungal activity test shown a high growth inhibition at concentration (4%) of each plant extract. The highest antifungal activity was recorded for clove extract which causes complete growth inhibition at concentration of 1%. Efficacy of clove extract on disease incidence ofRhizoctoniaroot-rot of pea was investigated in the greenhouse pot experiment. Clove extract at concentration 4% as well as the chemical fungicide recorded highly significant increase in the percentage of survived plants (40 and 48%, respectively) and highly significant decrease in disease incidence.