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The convergence of heterogeneous wireless sensor networks provides many benefits, including increased coverage, flexible load balancing capabilities, more efficient use of network resources, and the provision of additional data by different types of sensors, thus leading to improved customer service based on more complete information. However, despite these advances, the challenge of ensuring reliability and survivability remains due to low-cost sensor requirements and the inherent unreliability of the wireless environment. Integrating different sensor networks and unifying protocols naturally leads to the creation of a network with multiple sinks, necessitating the exploration of new approaches to rational reliability assurance. The failure of some sensors does not necessarily lead to a shutdown of the network, since other sensors can duplicate information and deliver data to sinks via an increased number of alternative routes. In this paper, the reliability indicator is defined as the probability that sinks can collect data from a given number of sensors. In this context, a dedicated reliability metric is introduced and examined for its effectiveness. This metric is computed using an algorithm rooted in the modified factoring method. Furthermore, we introduce a heuristic algorithm designed for optimal sink placement in wireless sensor networks to achieve the highest level of network reliability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, there has been a focus on the significance of swarm intelligenceinspired routing algorithms for achieving optimum solutions in biologically inspired wireless sensor networks (WSNs). These protocols depict a network of wireless mobile nodes forming an infrastructure that is agile, dynamic, and independent of a central administrative facility. Among the challenges faced by bio-inspired WSNs, mobility awareness and excessive energy consumption (EC) stand out as significant hurdles, particularly in dynamic models with intermittent connections. This project seeks to tackle these obstacles by deploying the hybrid energy efficiency (HEED) approach to distributed clustering for network system cluster formation, along with fusion routing protocol of particle swarm optimization (PSO) and PIO to select cluster-heads and optimize solutions in bio-inspired WSNs. The success of the suggested approach is assessed using a variety of criteria, such as energy usage, rate of packet delivery, EC, and routing overhead and network lifetime. The methods like ad hoc on-demand distance vector's (AODV) and ant colony optimization (ACO) methods are employed in the testing and validation. In comparison to the reactive AODV routing protocol and ACO, the suggested routing protocol (HPSOPIO) reduces energy usage and increases network lifespan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary The cluster networking protocols are the roots that embed intelligent decision‐making and enhance the lifespan of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Wireless sensors with limited capabilities face several challenges due to the heterogeneous application environments. Especially, the mobility‐incorporated sensors in most situations trouble the cluster network's robustness. Many cluster networking protocols have been presented in the past to enhance the network lifespan and data delivery ratio. However, they lack a dedicated and efficient mechanism for mobility assistance, an adequate cluster management process and cluster head selection criteria. To overcome these issues and for the uniform energy load distribution, we propose a mobility‐compatible cache controlled cluster networking protocol (MC‐CCCNP) in this paper. It is an energy‐efficient cluster networking protocol that supports sensor movement. Network resource management and routing are controlled distributively by an optimal number of cache nodes. It defines a new strategy for cache node deployment based on neighbour density as well as a weight formula for cluster head selection and cluster formation based on the residual energy, the distance to the base station and the node velocity. It also includes techniques for detaching and reconnecting a mobile node to an appropriate cluster cache if it crosses the cluster boundary. We simulate and compare the performance of our protocol with the centralised energy‐efficient clustering routing, energy‐efficient mobility‐based cluster head selection protocol and dual tier cluster‐based routing protocols over different network configurations with varying mobility, scalability and heterogeneity. The MC‐CCCNP showed remarkable improvements in energy utilisation uniformity and energy consumption. With the improved network lifespan, it also maintains a higher data throughput rate of 95% or more in almost all network configurations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The seamless integration of intelligent Internet of Things devices with conventional wireless sensor networks has revolutionized data communication for different applications, such as remote health monitoring, industrial monitoring, transportation, and smart agriculture. Efficient and reliable data routing is one of the major challenges in the Internet of Things network due to the heterogeneity of nodes. This paper presents a traffic-aware, cluster-based, and energy-efficient routing protocol that employs traffic-aware and cluster-based techniques to improve the data delivery in such networks. The proposed protocol divides the network into clusters where optimal cluster heads are selected among super and normal nodes based on their residual energies. The protocol considers multi-criteria attributes, i.e. energy, traffic load, and distance parameters to select the next hop for data delivery towards the base station. The performance of the proposed protocol is evaluated through the network simulator NS3.40. For different traffic rates, number of nodes, and different packet sizes, the proposed protocol outperformed LoRaWAN in terms of end-to-end packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, end-to-end delay, and network lifetime. For 100 nodes, the proposed protocol achieved a 13% improvement in packet delivery ratio, 10 ms improvement in delay, and 10 mJ improvement in average energy consumption over LoRaWAN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Underwater wireless sensor networks are gaining popularity since supporting a broad range of applications, both military and civilian. Wireless acoustics is the most widespread technology adopted in underwater networks, the realization of which must face several challenges induced by channel propagation like signal attenuation, multipath and latency. In order to address such issues, the attention of researchers has recently focused on the concept of cooperative communication and networking, borrowed from terrestrial systems and to be conveniently recast in the underwater scenario. In this paper, we present a comprehensive literature review about cooperative underwater wireless sensor networks, investigating how nodes cooperation can be exploited at the different levels of the network protocol stack. Specifically, we review the diversity techniques employable at the physical layer, error and medium access control link layer protocols, and routing strategies defined at the network layer. We also provide numerical results and performance comparisons among the most widespread approaches. Finally, we present the current and future trends in cooperative underwater networks, considering the use of machine learning algorithms to efficiently manage the different aspects of nodes cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wireless sensor network (WSN) is one of the most important achievements of the modern technological revolution and greatly affects human life. These networks suffer from some limitations that affect their performance, such as the limited power of their devices. Clustering technology is one of the effective power conservation techniques that improves the performance of WSNs, so this article focuses on developing aggregation technology by proposing an Energy Saving, Multi-hops, Clustering, and Hierarchy (ESMCH) protocol for homogeneous WSNs. The proposed protocol improves clustering technology in several directions. The first direction is by determining the ideal number of cluster head nodes (CHs) suitable for the network, and the second is through the perfect choice of nodes that will represent CHs. The third trend is the selection of secondary CHs. The last trend is the formation of clusters, which depends on an important parameter (distance to CHs). The proposed system uses the TDMA method to schedule the data transfer process to CHs (inside the cluster) and the CSMA method to organize the exchange of data packets between CHs (outside the clusters) for delivery to the base station. The results of simulation experiments in MATLAB R (2020 a) show that the proposed protocol extends network lifetime by 32% compared to the LEACH algorithm and by 26% compared to the SEP algorithm. The results also display that the ESMCH protocol increased the throughput of the WSN by 16.8% compared to its throughput when using the SEP algorithm and by 30% when using the LEACH algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet of things (IoT) applications from home applications to military applications have been expanding day by day. Energy efficient routing schemes are vital for resource constraint wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and IoT. Clustering based routing scheme is one of the basic methods to extend the lifetime of WSN-based IoT. On the other hand, clustering is NP-hard problem and metaheuristic algorithms are suitable for clustering. In this paper, a new energy-efficient routing scheme is presented for IoT using two metaheuristic algorithms Harris hawk's optimization (HHO) and whale optimization algorithm (WOA). The selection of the cluster header (CH) is based on the WOA using various parameters such as residual energy of nodes, distance to neighbors, distance to sink. After clustering phase, an energy efficient routing scheme was proposed using the HHO algorithm. The simulation results in MATLAB environment justifies that the proposed protocol improves network life by 10%, average energy consumption by 15%, packet delivery rate (PDR) by 12%, throughput by 11% and number of alive nodes by 15%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we focus on real-time anomaly detection using the gated graph neural network (GGNN) and long short-term memory (LSTM) algorithms for the most commonly used network protocols of HTTP and TELNET. In a network, the flow of the various protocols is determined by their respective roles. Each protocol consists of options with individual tasks, and protocols are processed based on these tasks. Therefore, when analyzing flow, a unique repetitive pattern emerges according to the flow and mission. Accordingly, when an anomaly signal is involved, the pattern shows different characteristics from the existing pattern. This study identifies the flow of input and output values based on the correlation between the options defined at each port, whereby the correlation is analyzed, and the detection accuracy of the anomaly signal is determined using the GGNN and LSTM algorithms. The experimental results demonstrate an accuracy of 99.36% for GGNN and 89.46% for LSTM in detecting network anomalies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and Internet of Things (IoT) are essential for numerous applications. WSN nodes often operate on limited battery capacity, so energy efficiency is a significant problem for clustering and routing. In addition to these limitations, one of the primary issues of WSNs is achieving reliability and security of transmitted data in vulnerable environments to prevent malicious node attacks. This work aims to develop a secure and energy-efficient routing protocol for fault data prediction to enhance WSNs network lifespan and data reliability. The proposed technique has three major phases: cluster construction, optimal route selection, and intrusion detection. The adaptive shark smell optimization (ASSO) technique was initially used with three input parameters for CH selection. These parameters are the residual energy, the distance to the BS, and the node density. After clustering, salp swarm optimization (SSO) is used to select the optimum path for data transmission between clusters, resulting in an energy-efficient WSN. Finally, to ensure the security of cluster-based WSNs, an effective intrusion detection system based on a modified Elman recurrent neural network (MERNN) is implemented to detect the presence of intrusions in the network. The experimental results show that it outperforms the competing methods in various performance metrics. The performance results of quality of service (QoS) parameters are expressed as dispersion value (0.8072), packet delivery rate (98%), average delay (160 ms), network lifetime (3200 rounds), and the accuracy of this method is 99.2%. Compared to the SVM, ELM, HMM, and MK-ELM protocols, the proposed protocol increases network lifetime by 77%, 60%, 45.4%, and 14.2%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the implementation of a synchronous Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) framework utilizing wireless, low-cost, and off-the-shelf components. Vibration-based condition monitoring plays a crucial role in assessing the reliability of structural systems by detecting damage through changes in vibration parameters. The adoption of low-cost Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has gained traction, emphasizing the need for precise time synchronization to schedule wake-up times of multiple sensor nodes for data collection. To address this challenge, our proposed method introduces a TCP/IP socket programming-based mimic broadcasting mechanism and a scalable sensing network controlled by a central gateway, leveraging the Raspberry Pi Python platform. The system operates using Internet of Things (IoT) concepts and adopts a star topology, where a packet is transmitted from the gateway to initiate measurements simultaneously on multiple sensor nodes. The sensor node comprises a MEMS accelerometer, a real time clock DS3231 module and Raspberry Pi Zero 2W (RPi0-2W), while the gateway employs a Raspberry Pi 4 (RPi4). To ensure accurate time synchronization, all Pi0-2W nodes were configured as Network Time Protocol (NTP) clients, synchronizing with an RPi4 server using chrony, the reliable implementation of the NTP. Through experimental evaluations, the system demonstrates its effectiveness and reliability in achieving initial time synchronization. This study addresses the challenge of achieving precise time alignment between sensor nodes through the utilization of the Dynamic Time Wrapping (DTW) method for Frequency Domain Decomposition (FDD) applications. The contribution of this research significantly enhances the field by improving the accuracy and reliability of time-aligned measurements, with a specific focus on utilizing low-cost sensors. By developing a practical and cost-effective SHM framework, this work advances the accessibility and scalability of structural health monitoring solutions, facilitating more widespread adoption and implementation in various engineering applications [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a survey on the MAC and network layer of Wireless Sensor Networks. Performance requirements of the MAC layer are explored. MAC layer protocols for battery-powered networks and energy harvesting-based networks are discussed and compared. A detailed dis- cussion on design constraints and classification of routing protocols is presented. Several routing protocols are compared in terms of such parameters as: energy consumption, scalability, network lifetime and mobility. Problems that require future research are presented. The cross-layer approach for WSNs is also surveyed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) heavily depend on energy resources it crucial to enhance their longevity to achieve better performance. Clustering serves as an effective technique for controlling WSN topology. However, selecting an appropriate cluster head plays a critical role in the success of this approach. Cluster head selection involves considering various parameters, such as energy levels, node locations, and the number of neighbors, thereby rendering it a complex task. To address this complexity, we propose a cluster head selection method based on fuzzy logic, which emulates human decision-making by simultaneously handling multiple parameters. Our approach utilizes the Mamdani Inference engine and fuzzy parameters, including residual energy, node centrality, and distance from the base station. We evaluate our proposed method using heterogeneous networks featuring two and three levels of hierarchy. Through simulations, we demonstrate that our approach outperforms the SEP in a two-level network and the SEP-E protocol in a three-level network in terms of the network's lifetime. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet of Things (IoT) in tourism refers to the use of interconnected devices and systems to enhance the travel experience for tourists. IoT applications in the tourism industry include using and promoting new wireless communication mediums, which will have a significant impact on this business. Wireless network sensors (WSNs) significantly influence the future of communication because they offer a new channel for communication among linked tourist machinery and equipment. The effective routing method of sensor nodes can be helpful for the application of wireless sensors and IoT in eco-cultural tourism. The routing approach of sensor nodes is crucial to the entire network's performance. Routing protocols select several intermediary nodes between the source nodes and the destination nodes to build an effective data transmission path by enhancing WSN's performance in eco-cultural tourism. This study use the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and the conventional Minimum Maximum Battery Cost Routing (MMBCR) protocol to lower the network's energy consumption and packet loss rate. According to the experimental findings, the DHCP protocol's network latency was 0.01 s, and the MMBCR protocol's network delay was 0.05 s, when there were 30 nodes in the network. Similarly, the MMBCR protocol's network latency was 0.17 s, and the DHCP protocol's network delay was 0.07 s when there were 150 nodes. The DHCP protocol's network delay increased but did not change abruptly, but the delay of the MMBCR protocol increased constantly and quicker based on the experimental outcomes. It demonstrates how the DHCP protocol is more flexible to data rate increases and more suited to enhancing the speed of sensor nodes as a new medium for communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, technology plays a vital part in our daily lives. Especially in medicine, such as consultations, examination, and operation, these processes are necessary and must be utilized accordingly. Medical checkups are required to ensure the patient’s wellbeing. However, many people suffer from severe health conditions and are not always able to leave the house for examination. They are also not aware of potential risks within their body and therefore, don’t feel the need to be examined. With the rise of new technological advantages, new solutions are being presented to tackle those issues. In the field of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), the wireless body area network (WBAN), alongside with its features and functionalities, can be regarded as one of the potential innovations for medicine, military, sport, and entertainment. With its tiny sensors, as well as with its plethora of applications, the WBAN is an excellent choice for remote medical surveillance and treatment. Furthermore, various routing protocols can provide proper solutions, depending on the application needs. However, challenges, such as energy efficiency, and security. are being further developed to improve the needs of its demands. This review is an overview of WBAN technologies, protocols, applications and potential challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial control systems (ICSs) consist of a large number of control applications that are associated with periodic real-time flows with hard deadlines. To facilitate large-scale integration, remote control, and coordination, wireless sensor and actuator networks form the main communication framework in most ICSs. Among the existing wireless sensor and actuator network protocols, WirelessHART is the most suitable protocol for real-time applications in ICSs. The communications in a WirelessHART network are time-division multiple access based. To satisfy the hard deadlines of the real-time flows, the schedule in a WirelessHART network is pre-computed. The same schedule is repeated over every hyperperiod (i.e., lowest common multiple of the periods of the flows). However, a malicious attacker can exploit the repetitive behavior of the flow schedules to launch timing attacks (e.g., selective jamming attacks). To mitigate timing attacks, we propose an online distributed schedule randomization strategy that randomizes the time-slots in the schedules at each network device without violating the flow deadlines, while ensuring the closed-loop control stability. To increase the extent of randomization in the schedules further, and to reduce the energy consumption of the system, we incorporate a period adaptation strategy that adjusts the transmission periods of the flows depending on the stability of the control loops at runtime. We use Kullback-Leibler divergence and prediction probability of slots as two metrics to evaluate the performance of our proposed strategy. We compare our strategy with an offline centralized schedule randomization strategy. Experimental results show that the schedules generated by our strategy are 10% to 15% more diverse and 5% to 10% less predictable on average compared to the offline strategy when the number of base schedules and keys vary between 4 and 6 and 12 and 32, respectively, under all slot utilization (number of occupied slots in a hyperperiod). On incorporating period adaptation, the divergence in the schedules reduceat each period increase with 46% less power consumption on average. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Irrigation & Drainage is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Przegląd Elektrotechniczny is the property of Przeglad Elektrotechniczny and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Internet of Things (IoT) is a smart technology that allows communication between humans and all things that contain sensors, actuators, embedded electronics, software, or storage via the internet. As a result, IoT should be seen as a part of the overall Internet of the future, which is likely to be very different from what we are using today. Despite the advantages of IoT, energy efficiency is still considered one of the main challenges in IoT. There are many algorithms that have been proposed to solve the energy efficiency problem. Unfortunately, most of them have some drawbacks. As a result, an Enhanced Threshold Sensitive Distributed Energy-Efficient Clustering routing protocol (ETSDEEC) for WSN-based IoT was proposed in this paper. Hard and soft thresholds are used in the proposed protocol to determine whether nodes are allowed to send their sensed data. From the simulation, we found that the proposed ETSDEEC protocol performs better than EDEEC and TDEEC protocols in terms of network lifetime, energy dissipationand throughput. It is also found that the proposed ETSDEEC can improve the lifetime by 59.8% in comparison to EDEEC and about 37.7% in comparison to TDEEC protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current research on data query for two-tiered WSN, the privacy-preservation range query is one of the hotspots. However, there are some problems in the existing researches in two-tiered wireless sensor networks such as high computational and communication costs for security comparison items and high energy consumption of sensing nodes. In this paper, a privacy-preservation range query protocol based on the integration reversal 0-1 encoding with Bloom filter is researched and designed. In the sensing data submission stage, the optimized reversal 0-1 encoding, HMAC algorithm, AES encryption algorithm and variable-length Bloom filter are used for generating the maximum–minimum comparison encoding and constructing a shorter verification index chain to reduce computational and communication costs of sensing nodes; in the private data range query stage, the base station uses the HMAC algorithm to convert the plaintext query range into the ciphertext query range and sends it to the storage node. In the storage node, the bitmap encoding information of the verification index chain is calculated with the comparison rule of the reversal 0-1 encoding and it is returned to the base station together with the verification index chain and the data ciphertext that compliance with the query rule; in the data integrity verification stage, the integrity of the query results using the verification index chain and bitmap encoding is verified at the base station. In the experimental section, the Cortex-M4 development board equipped with the Alios-Things operating system as sensing node and the Cortex-A9 development board equipped with the Linux operating system as storage node are implemented in this protocol, which is compared with the existing protocols in three aspects: the number of data collected in each cycle, the length of data and the number of data dimensions. The experimental results show that the energy consumption of this protocol is lower under the same experimental environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction-- Smart irrigation systems require reliable and energy-efficient communication between the sensors in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and the control system. Objective-- To address this challenge, this paper presents several cluster-based selection protocols, based on the Stable Election Protocol (SEP) and Distributed Energy-Efficient Clustering (DEEC). Methodology-- The presented protocols divide the agriculture field into sub-fields to reduce energy consumption between far sensors and the Base Station (BS). Results-- Comparison with traditional protocols using evaluation metrics such as network throughput, stability, instability period, and lifetime, shows that the presented protocols outperform in terms of all metrics. Conclusions-- The results indicate the effectiveness of the proposed protocols in prolonging the network's lifetime and improving energy efficiency in heterogeneous WSNs, thus supporting the performance of smart irrigation systems. Numerically, using the proposed protocols, the network lifetime increased by 23% compared to conventional SEP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet of Things in 5G and next-generation data communication networks have relied heavily on Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Data aggregation, Energy consumption, bandwidth utilization, and dynamic traffic routing play a significant role and impose challenges in achieving QoS in a sensor network. Therefore, it is crucial to concentrate on these factors in order to increase the network's lifetime and quality of service. The research's goal is to analyse IoT WSNs in terms of their architecture, framework, security, data aggregation, and routing techniques. In IoT WSNs, the data aggregation technique reduces the energy consumption of the network's nodes. This improves the network's energy and other QoS parameter's efficiency. The network layer hybrid data aggregation and routing protocol proposed in this study is new and efficient. In this work, a novel method for data aggregation based on anchor-based routing and matrix filling theory is proposed. It is suggested to use improved Anchor-based Routing protocol for Event Reporting (ARER), an anchor-based routing technique that includes dynamic clustering and constrained flooding. In order to achieve QoS in IoT WSN, the proposed hybrid network layer protocol has outperformed. The proposed protocol has performed better in terms of QoS metrics like throughput, end-to-end delay, routing overhead, packet delivery ratio, and energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve the data monitoring and information management capabilities of membrane gas measure device indirect metering terminals, a sensor network based data monitoring method for membrane gas measure device indirect metering terminals was proposed. The distributed and centralized sensor network node deployment method is used to achieve data collection for membrane gas measure device indirect metering terminals, and the collected membrane gas measure device indirect metering terminal data is segmented, fused, and reorganized. The distributed energy storage and constant volume two-level optimal control method is used to analyze the operation status of gas measure device indirect metering terminal data. The ZigBee networking protocol is used to build a network structure model for gas measure device indirect metering terminals, an integrated high-precision temperature and pressure sensor arranged parallel to the inner wall of the valve body is used to detect the temperature and pressure at the outlet of the membrane gas measure device. The temperature information is stored in DSP, and the user's expenses, system operation and maintenance, and peak shaving and valley filling benefits are taken as the parameters of the energy storage and constant volume outer layer model. The output stability of the indirect metering terminal data of the membrane gas measure device is analyzed in the high switching frequency mode. Combined with adaptive parameter adjustment, the indirect metering terminal control and data dynamic collection of the membrane gas measure device are realized. Realize dynamic monitoring of metering terminal data in wireless sensor network networking control mode. The test results show that using this method for indirect metering terminal data monitoring of gas measure devices has good output stability, strong dynamic fusion of sensing information, reduced metering errors, and improved metering accuracy of gas measure devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Sensor Networks consist of a number of low cost, small sensor nodes powered by energy constrained batteries. Due to limited power, memory, and processing capacities of sensor nodes, it is essential to find new methods which improves energy consumption of the nodes and prolongs the lifetime of the network. Cluster head election among sensor nodes has an important role in wireless sensor networks to boost efficiency and lifetime of the network. In this study, a cluster head election method has been proposed and evaluated for heterogeneous wireless sensor networks, which extends the lifetime of the network. Simulation results reveal that the proposed cluster head election method offers a better performance than the SEP and LEACH protocols in terms of network lifetime and is able to provide throughput for a longer period of time. It is found that EECHEP provides efficient use of sensor energy and helps increase the number of surviving cluster head nodes that report to the base station. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), the consumption of energy is high due to the data transmission in the sensing region. The Optimized Distributed Voronoi-based Collaboration (ODVOC) optimizes data delivery and it suffers from huge energy consumption. To overcome this drawback, a data aggregation scheme is introduced to expand the lifetime of the network and to minimize the energy utilization. Data aggregation is a significant approach that preserves the unwanted usage of energy during data transmission. In this paper, the Optimized Distributed Voronoi-based Cooperation scheme with Energy-aware Dual-path Geographic Routing (DAOHS-ODVOC-EDGR) is proposed which incorporates the polydisperse aggregation scheme and it aggregates the indispensable data in the intermediary nodes. The effective data aggregation is achieved by the estimation of the waiting time of the data at every intermediary node and cost function that is used for electing the next-hop node. In the proposed protocol, the buffer value of every node is divided to retain diversified kinds of flow for effective and fair delivery of data. The rate of transmission at the source and intermediary node is altered during the congestion. The proposed DAOHS- ODVOC-EDGR protocol is tested via simulation scheme. The result of the simulation exposes that DAOHS-ODVOC-EDGR outperforms the TESDA and DVOC protocol in terms of network lifetime, energy efficiency, and hop count delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous municipalities employ the smart city model in large cities to improve the quality of life of their residents, utilize local resources efficiently, and save operating expenses. This model incorporates many heterogeneous technologies such as Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), and Cloud Computing (ClCom). However, effective networking and communication protocols are required to provide the essential harmonization and control of the many system mechanisms to achieve these crucial goals. The networking requirements and characteristics of smart city applications (SCAs) are identified in this study, as well as the networking protocols that can be utilized to serve the diverse data traffic flows that are required between the dissimilar mechanisms. Additionally, we show examples of the networking designs of a few smart city systems, such as smart transport, smart building, smart home, smart grid, smart water, pipeline monitoring, and control systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wireless sensor network is of great interest due to its special features and applications. Due to the computational limitation and power supply of these networks, hierarchical cluster routing is mentioned as a solution to improve the problem of energy consumption and network lifetime. In our study, a fuzzy-based clustering routing protocol was proposed that uses network zoning and node residual energy parameters, node distance to the center of each zone, and node-to-base station angle as fuzzy input for cluster head selection. In the proposed method with the aim of reducing network energy consumption, the responsibility of choosing CHs in each area, determining the area of each node, calculating the distance of each node to the center and calculating the angle of each node was assigned to the BS. The proposed method was carried out with Farahzadi, LEACH, MSCR protocols in terms of network lifetime evaluation criteria, stability period, selection and number of CH and average residual energy in MATLAB environment. The comparison of the results showed that the proposed method has performed better in terms of criteria, so that the network lifetime as one of the important indicators, the proposed method has improved by 50%, 40% and 20%, respectively, compared to LEACH, Farahzadi and MSCR methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acoustic energy mapping provides the functionality to obtain characteristics of acoustic sources, as: presence, localization, type and trajectory of sound sources. Several beamforming-based techniques can be used for this purpose. However, they rely on the difference of arrival times of the signal at each capture node (or microphone), so it is of major importance to have synchronized multi-channel recordings. A Wireless Acoustic Sensor Network (WASN) can be very practical to install when used for mapping the acoustic energy of a given acoustic environment. However, they are known for having low synchronization between the recordings from each node. The objective of this paper is to characterize the impact of current popular synchronization methodologies as part of the WASN to capture reliable data to be used for acoustic energy mapping. The two evaluated synchronization protocols are: Network Time Protocol (NTP) y Precision Time Protocol (PTP). Additionally, three different audio capture methodologies were proposed for the WASN to capture the acoustic signal: two of them, recording the data locally and one sending the data through a local wireless network. As a real-life evaluation scenario, a WASN was built using nodes conformed by a Raspberry Pi 4B+ with a single MEMS microphone. Experimental results demonstrate that the most reliable methodology is using the PTP synchronization protocol and audio recording locally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a large number of connected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) networks that are typically several orders of magnitude bigger than enterprise networks and campus networks. The exponential increase in the number of interconnected smart devices is expected to exceed 60 billion smart objects shortly. The requirements needed for IoT networks are scalability, low power consumption, and simplified routing and security protocols. IoT networks are also heterogeneous, composing different types of networks together. Legacy network protocols like IPv4 has deemed to be inefficient for IoT networks. As the number of IPv4 addresses is almost consumed with regular network devices, we propose the use of IPv6 addressing for IoT-connected devices as IPv4 cannot accommodate the scalability requirement of IoT. IPv6 provides extended address space and enhanced mobility which are very essential for IoT networks. In this research, we apply IPv6 to IoT networks to avoid the scalability bottleneck of the IPv4 subnet. IPv6 accommodates a large number of connected devices and solves issues resulting from the heterogeneous nature and access methods of IoT devices. However, IPv6 is a large protocol that does not suit itself well in the IoT world. The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) permitted for IEEE 802.15.4 MAC data frames with their encapsulated IPv6 packet is limited to 127 bytes. We need 40 bytes for the uncompressed IPv6 header and 8 bytes are needed for the uncompressed UDP header. As a result, there are either 54 bytes left for the payload when security is not considered or 33 bytes when security is considered. We investigate throughput improvement for IoT networks by applying adaptation to IPv6 through header compression with UDP header compression. We also apply fragmentation for MAC frames that exceed the 127 bytes MTU limit. Simulation results showed that IPv6 compression with or without fragmentation serves toward adapting IPv6 packets to IoT networks. In the case of applying fragmentation, the technique of fragment forwarding greatly enhances the performance. Network traffic within the same network can be compressed to 2 bytes. On leaving the 802.15.4 network, the header increases to 12 bytes if the network prefix is known or to 20 bytes if the network prefix is unknown. Two evaluation metrics, namely, Compression Gain and Packet Delivery Ratio were applied to our proposed implementation method to prove the validity and the efficiency of our proposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a system of machines, computing devices, electronic equipment, and different sensors. It forms a network, where the transmission of device-related data can be accomplished. The devices in the IoT are connected to each other through wireless links and form ad-hoc networks. In IoT based applications, the lifetime of the communicating nodes is a greater concern. The network lifetime can be maximized by introducing energy efficient data transmission in the network. Therefore, a traffic and delay-aware energy-efficient routing (TADEER) protocol for IoT-based networks are proposed in this work. The proposed technique assigns delay for transmitting data based on the criticality level of data and traffic rate at the forwarding nodes. Fixing delays for data transmission helps to avoid unnecessary transmissions. The route selection process is implemented using an optimization algorithm. A Fuzzy logic (FL) based biogeography-based optimization (BBO) algorithm is presented in this work. Thus, the number of data transmission and energy consumption can be reduced. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated by analyzing transmission delay, network lifetime, and energy consumption. By comparing the simulation results to the existing methods TEAR and ETASA, the simulation results are validated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) are challenged by the dynamic nature of the underwater environment, large propagation delays, and global positioning system (GPS) signal unavailability, which make traditional medium access control (MAC) protocols less effective. These factors limit the channel utilization and performance of UASNs, making it difficult to achieve high data rates and handle congestion. To address these challenges, we propose a reinforcement learning (RL) MAC protocol that supports asynchronous network operation and leverages large propagation delays to improve the network throughput.he protocol is based on framed ALOHA and enables nodes to learn an optimal transmission strategy in a fully distributed manner without requiring detailed information about the external environment. The transmission strategy of sensor nodes is defined as a combination of time-slot and transmission-offset selection. By relying on the concept of learning through interaction with the environment, the proposed protocol enhances network resilience and adaptability. In both static and mobile network scenarios, it has been compared with the state-of-the-art framed ALOHA for the underwater environment (UW-ALOHA-Q), carrier-sensing ALOHA (CS-ALOHA), and delay-aware opportunistic transmission scheduling (DOTS) protocols. The simulation results show that the proposed solution leads to significant channel utilization gains, ranging from 13% to 106% in static network scenarios and from 23% to 126% in mobile network scenarios.oreover, using a more efficient learning strategy, it significantly reduces convergence time compared to UW-ALOHA-Q in larger networks, despite the increased action space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advancement of the Internet of Things (IoT) has tremendously influenced many fields of human life. The Internet of Medical Things, Internet of Flying Things, Internet of Floating Things and Internet of Autonomous Things are recent evolution of IoT. The protocols used in all forms of IoT are critical during the execution demanding formal verification methods to ensure correctness. However, the most challenging part of formal verification is abstracting the system under test, making many systems unverified. Formal protocol verification is essential for detecting specification and design flaws that go undetected and corrected during the testing phase. This paper proposes novel methods for abstracting communication patterns for IoT protocols. Message broadcasts, periodic message advertisements, topology encoding, and topology change are examples of communication patterns. An attempt is made to model these patterns using pi-calculus and PROMELA. Finally, the trickle, a wireless sensor network dissemination protocol, has been modelled using pi-calculus and PROMELA. The Spin model checker verifies design flaws, such as deadlocks and non-progress cycles. The verification results ensure that there are no deadlocks or non-progress loops. The protocol is statically verified for message transmission semantics. The analysis revealed that the protocol could only guarantee message transmission for lossy connections if an alternative route covers all other nodes. The empirical results and theorem show that the abstraction mechanism can be directly utilised for automated and theoretical verification. Researchers can use the abstraction framework described in this paper to create validation models for static and automated verification of existing and new IoT protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a network of Sensor Nodes (SN) which adopt radio signals for communication amongst themselves. There is an increase in the prominence of WSN adaptability to emerging applications like the Internet of Things (IoT) and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). Data security, detection of faults, management of energy, collection and distribution of data, network protocol, network coverage, mobility of nodes, and network heterogeneity are some of the issues confronted by WSNs. There is not much published information on issues related to node mobility and management of energy at the time of aggregation of data. Towards the goal of boosting the mobility-based WSNs' network performance and energy, data aggregation protocols such as the presently-used Mobility Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH-M) and Energy Efficient Heterogeneous Clustered (EEHC) scheme have been examined in this work. A novel Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) algorithm is proposed in this work for effective election of CHs and multipath routing in WSNs so as to enable effective data transfer to the Base Station (BS) with least energy utilization. There is avoidance of the local optima problem at the time of solution space search in this proposed technique. Experimentations have been conducted on a large WSN network that has issues with mobility of nodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most significant increase of current task is in the desire for operational flexibility and agility in large-scale underwater network application scenarios in recent years. In order to address the challenging problems in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs), we propose a large-scale UWSN based on the cellular network architecture called Underwater Cellular (uw-Cellular) network. It is designed especially for application scenarios where a large number of both fixed and mobile network nodes exist in a wide area to monitor the underwater environment. We also design protocols in each network layer in order to ensure reasonable channel sharing, data forwarding path selection and data reliability. The purpose of the simulation study we implement is to evaluate the performance of the CLA routing strategy compared to the VBF and the MFLOOD protocols in the uw-Cellular network. We also deploy a twenty-node uw-Cellular network in the real-world environment as the field case study. The experimental results showed that the Data Rate between any nodes could reach above 500 bps, and the network Average Throughput was no less than 550 bps under various load situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Routing protocol for low power and lossy networks (RPL) serves the routing process in Internet Protocol version 6 over low-power wireless personal area network protocol stack. RPL protocol is deployed on sensor nodes and is vulnerable to many attacks due to the resource-constrained and non-tamper-resistant nature of these nodes. Many attacks on RPL-based networks can be carried out by an attacker using either an insider or an outsider attack method. The concerns associated with the RPL protocol regarding security and privacy may restrict its global adaption. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a thorough investigation of RPL-specific attacks and their effects on the underlying network. To this end, our work provides a detailed investigation of the rank attack, a type of denial-of-service attack and its effect on the RPL network. We made an in-depth experimental study on four different RPL network topologies and analysed the impact of rank attack. To analyse the effect of rank attack, we use both grid and random variants of the network topologies. Based on the location of the sink node, we classify the grid topology as grid corner and grid centre, whereas, based on mobility, we classify the random topology as random topology with static nodes and random topology with mobile nodes. Under the attack scenario, the average number of packets received in grid topology with sink node at centre degrades by 10%. For grid topology having the sink node at the corner, the average number of packets received degraded by 13.44%. The percentage degradation of the average number of packets received at the sink node with random topology is nearly 8%. Random topology with mobile nodes has 7.4% lesser number of packets received at the sink node. Next, the value of average inter-packet time with random mobile topology has the highest increase of about 19% under attack. At the same time, we notice an increase in average inter-packet time of about 6.4% with random topology, 3.7% with grid topology having the sink node at the corner, and 0.7% with grid topology having the sink node at the centre. Further, when the rank attack is mounted, we notice a hike of 24% in message count with random mobile and 28% with grid corner topology. Moreover, both random topology and grid topology with sink at the centre have a hike of about 13% in message count. Furthermore, when average power consumption is considered under attack scenario, random topology with mobile nodes and grid topology with the sink node placed at the corner demonstrate an increase of 11% under attack. At the same time, random and grid topologies with the sink node at the centre have a rise of nearly 2% as compared to normal RPL. The results of our experiments show that the rank attack considerably degrades network performance in terms of packets received at the sink node, inter-packet time, control message count, and average power consumption. Further, our investigation also confirms that the position of the attacker node in the network topology has a significant impact on the effect of the rank attack. Furthermore, we also suggest some potential solutions to mitigate this attack. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The IEEE 802.15.4 is a popular standard used in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and the Internet of Things (IoT) applications. In these networks, devices are organized into groups formally known as personal area networks (PAN) which require a bootstrap procedure to become operational. Bootstrap plays a key role in the initialization and maintenance of these networks. For this reason, this work presents our implementation and performance analysis for the ns-3 network simulator. Specifically, this bootstrap implementation includes the support of three types of scanning mechanisms (energy scan, passive scan, and active scan) and the complete classic association mechanism described by the standard. Both of these mechanisms can be used independently by higher layers protocols to support network initialization, network joining, and maintenance tasks. Performance evaluation is conducted in total network association time and packet overhead terms. Our source code is documented and publicly available in the latest ns-3 official release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are considerably used for various environmental sensing applications. The architecture and internal specifications of WSNs have been chosen based on the requirements of particular applications. On this basis, WSNs consist of resource (energy and memory)-limited wireless sensor nodes. WSNs initiate data communication from source to destination via physical layer management principles, channel slot scheduling principles (time division multiple access), wireless medium access control (WMAC) protocols, wireless routing protocols and application protocols. In this environment, the development of WMAC principles, routing protocols and channel allotment schemes play crucial roles in network communication phases. Consequently, these layering functions consume more energy at each sensor node, which leads to minimal network lifetime. Even though the channel management schemes, medium control protocols and routing protocols are functionally suitable, the excessive energy consumption affects the overall network performance. In this situation, energy optimization algorithms are advised to minimize the resource wastage of WSNs during regular operations (medium control and routing process). Many research works struggle to identify the optimal energy-efficient load balancing strategies to improve WSN functions. With this in mind, the proposed article has conducted a detailed literature review and notable experimental comparisons on energy-efficient MAC protocols, channel scheduling policies and energy-efficient routing protocols. To an extent, the detailed analysis over these wireless network operations helps to understand the benefits and limitations of recent research works. In the experimental section of this article, eight existing techniques are evaluated under energy optimization strategies (WMAC, channel allocation, sleep/wake protocols, integrated routing and WMAC policies, balanced routing and cooperative routing). The proposed review and the classified technical observations collected from notable recent works have been recognized as crucial contributions. The results infer the suggestions for feasible WSN communication strategies with optimal channel management policies and routing policies. Notably, the simulation results show that cross-layer or multi-layer energy optimization policies perform better than homogeneous energy optimization models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, due to significant research and development efforts, an innovative field of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies is evolving as powerful platform for systematically distributed data accumulation and data management. Because of wide application potential WSN is becoming more and more ubiquitous. It ensures the deployment of the technologies such as an embedded technology, wireless communication technology and computer information management technology etc. Emphasizing the themes of Site Specific Crop Management (SSCM), the prime objective of Precision Agriculture, the Wireless Sensor Network is designed and implemented to monitor the environmental parameters of the high-tech polyhouse. The WSN is designed for monitoring of the relative humidity, temperature and intensity of light within the poly house, in the real units. The WSN under investigation comprises ten WSNodes, routed through star networking protocol. The WSNodes are the intelligent devices, wherein the embedded technology is realized. The Hardware is designed about AVR microcontroller, wherein the standards laid down by the IEEE 802.15.4 are emphasized. To ensure wireless networking, the Zigbee devices have been employed, which are configured by the methods suggested by the Digi Corporation. The Base Station, an inherent part the WSN, is also developed and made smarter by developing the Graphical Users Interface (GUI) is dedicatedly developed in the VB environment. Therefore, to realize the monitoring of the domain-wise data of spatio-temporal variance, the WSN is established in polyhouse of smart infrastructure. The results of implementation reveal the facets of Precision Agriculture. On comparison with the standard WSN from Hanback Electronics, it found that, the WSN under investigation exhibit good reliability and preciseness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean acidification is one of the parameters that affect underwater wireless sensor network routing protocols. The underlying network-level metrics of sensor nodes correspond to depth-dependent interactions. The spatial relevancy of sensor nodes varies drastically due to the mobility of the ocean column. In this work, complexity of the underwater environment and its characteristics are fed along with the sensor node capabilities of internetworking and its communication void. The wireless sensor node embeds medium access control layer timing of sensor packet transmission associated with its communication range and underwater characteristics of transmission and absorption losses. Underwater routing protocol for void avoidance transmission probability (UWRPVA-TP) is proposed, and sensors are deployed across diverse depths. Multi-hop communications as a function of depth-dependent attenuation across the ocean columns and their transmission probabilities have been calculated under mobility scenarios. The simulation result of UWRPVA-TP has been validated for the protocol using different attenuation models for energy consumption and number of alive nodes. Finally, the packet reliability ratio and deadline miss ratio has been calculated to understand the application of the time complexity associated with packet transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless networked control systems (WNCSs) have the potential to revolutionize industrial automation in smart factories. Optimizing closed-loop performance while maintaining stability is a fundamental challenge in WNCS due to limited bandwidth and nondeterministic link quality of wireless networks. In order to bridge the gap between network design and control system performance, we propose an optimal dynamic transmission scheduling strategy that optimizes the performance of multiloop control systems by allocating network resources based on predictions of both link quality and control performance at run time. We formulate the optimal dynamic scheduling problem as a nonlinear integer programming problem, which is relaxed to a linear programming problem. We further extend the optimization problem to balance control performance and communication cost. The proposed optimal dynamic scheduling strategy renders the closed-loop system mean-square stable under mild assumptions. Its efficacy is demonstrated by simulating a four-loop control system over an IEEE 802.15.4 wireless network simulator—TOSSIM. The run-time network reconfiguration protocol tailored for optimal scheduling is designed and implemented on a real wireless network consisting of IEEE 802.15.4 devices. Hybrid simulations integrating a real wireless network and simulated physical plant control are performed. Simulation and experimental results show that the optimal dynamic scheduling can enhance control system performance and adapt to both constant and variable wireless interference and physical disturbance to the plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In present days, the utilization of mobile edge computing (MEC) and Internet of Things (IoT) in mobile networks offers a bottleneck in the evolving technological requirements. Wireless Sensors Network (WSN) become an important component of the IoT and is the major source of big data. In IoT enabled WSN, a massive amount of data collection generated from a resource-limited network is a tedious process, posing several challenging issues. Traditional networking protocols offer unfeasible mechanisms for large-scaled networks and might be applied to IoT platform without any modifications. Information-Centric Networking (ICN) is a revolutionary archetype which that can resolve those big data gathering challenges. Employing the ICN architecture for resource-limited WSN enabled IoT networks may additionally enhance the data access mechanism, reliability challenges in case of a mobility event, and maximum delay under multihop communication. In this view, this paper proposes an IoT enabled cluster based routing (CBR) protocol for information centric wireless sensor networks (ICWSN), named CBR-ICWSN. The proposed model undergoes a black widow optimization (BWO) based clustering technique to select the optimal set of cluster heads (CHs) effectively. Besides, the CBR-ICWSN technique involves an oppositional artificial bee colony (OABC) based routing process for optimal selection of paths. A series of simulations take place to verify the performance of the CBR-ICWSN technique and the results are examined under several aspects. The experimental outcome of the CBR-ICWSN technique has outperformed the compared methods interms of network lifetime and energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Industry 4.0 era, with the continuous integration of industrial field systems and upper-layer facilities, interconnection between industrial wireless sensor networks (IWSNs) and industrial Internet networks is becoming increasingly pivotal. However, when deployed in real industrial scenarios, IWSNs are often connected to legacy control systems, through some wired industrial network protocols via gateways. Complex protocol translation is required in these gateways, and semantic interoperability is lacking between IWSNs and the industrial Internet. To fill this gap, our study focuses on realizing the interconnection and interoperability between an IWSN and the industrial Internet. The Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture (OPC UA) and joint publish/subscribe (pub/sub) communication between the two networks are used to achieve efficient transmission. Taking the Wireless Networks for Industrial Automation Process Automation (WIA-PA), a typical technology in IWSNs, as an example, we develop a communication architecture that adopts OPC UA as a communication bridge to integrate the WIA-PA network into the industrial Internet. A WIA-PA virtualization method for OPC UA pub/sub data sources is designed to solve the data mapping problem between WIA-PA and OPC UA. Then, the WIA-PA/OPC UA joint pub/sub transmission mechanism and the corresponding configuration mechanism are designed. Finally, a laboratory-level verification system is implemented to validate the proposed architecture, and the experimental results demonstrate its promising feasibility and capability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A distinct security protocol is necessary for the exponential growth in intelligent edge devices. In particular, the autonomous devices need to address significant security concern to function smoothly in the high market demand. Nevertheless, exponential increase in the connected devices has made cloud networks more complex and suffer from information processing delay. Therefore, the goal of this work is to design a novel server-less mutual authentication protocol for the edge networks. The aim is to demonstrate an autonomous mutual authentication amongst the connected smart devices within the edge networks. The solution addresses applications of autonomous cars, smart things, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices in the edge or wireless sensor networks (WSN), etc. In this paper, the design proposes use of a public-key system, octet-based balanced-tree transitions, challenge–response mechanism, device unique ID (UID), pseudo-random number generator (PRNG), time-stamps, and event specific session keys. Ultimately, server-less design requires less infrastructure and avoids several types of network-based communication attacks, e.g., impersonating, Man in the middle (MITM), IoT-DDOS, etc. Additionally, the system overhead is eliminated by no secret key requirements. The results provide sufficient evidence about the protocol market competitiveness and demonstrate better benchmark comparison results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) contain sensor nodes that sense the data and then transfer them to the sink node or base station. Sensor nodes are operationalized through limited-power batteries. Therefore, improvement in energy consumption becomes critical in UWSNs. Data forwarding through the nearest sensor node to the sink or base station reduces the network's reliability and stability because it creates a hotspot and drains the energy early. In this paper, we propose the cooperative energy-efficient routing (CEER) protocol to increase the network lifetime and acquire a reliable network. We use the sink mobility scheme to reduce energy consumption by eliminating the hotspot issue. We have divided the area into multiple sections for better deployment and deployed the sink nodes in each area. Sensor nodes generate the data and send it to the sink nodes to reduce energy consumption. We have also used the cooperative technique to achieve reliability in the network. Based on simulation results, the proposed scheme performed better than existing routing protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio (PDR), energy consumption, transmission loss, and end-to-end delay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: A well‐optimized and well‐performed communication network protocol is necessary to build successful underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs). But for wired and wireless communication, medium access control (MAC) has a great effect on network performance and optimization. But unlike land‐based MAC protocols, underwater MAC protocols come with various challenges and issues like high propagation delay, limited bandwidth for communication signals, large attenuation in network signals, and the high noise level in signals. It is very challenging to build a well‐optimized underwater MAC protocol. Also, in UWASN, sensor nodes are generally divided into sub‐network parts to reduce the propagation delay of data signals. But this creates the problem of non‐uniform traffic load in sensor nodes. So, considering these issues, dynamic hold time MAC (DHT‐MAC) protocol is proposed here. In this protocol, depending on the distance from the central node, sensor nodes are divided into two sub‐network zones (parent node and child node). Depending on the traffic load and propagation delay, the child nodes can change their respective parent nodes dynamically. Advantage of the proposed method is that, if any of the parent nodes stops working, the child node will connect to the nearest parent node. When collecting the data signals, it has been observed that child nodes have a light traffic load compared to parent nodes. So dynamic cooperative transmission MAC (DCT‐MAC) protocol which is a contention‐based MAC protocol has been used in child nodes and as parent nodes have high traffic load, reservation‐based MAC protocol has been used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to apply wireless sensor networks to mechanical vibration monitoring, the author proposes a wireless network topology with multiple data collection points for mechanical vibration monitoring. This structure reduces the transmission load of the data collection point, increases the data transmission rate of the network, balances the energy dissipation in the network, and utilizes the general wireless sensor network hardware platform. The network transmission protocol and related auxiliary mechanisms are designed and implemented, and a wireless vibration monitoring test platform is constructed. The transmission performance of the network structure with multiple data collection points is evaluated through the actual test. The experimental results show that by using the wireless sensor network topology with multiple data collection points, it can meet the requirements of continuous transmission of vibration data obtained by 1 kHz sampling. Conclusion. The system performance of the wireless sensor network based on this network structure has been improved under the condition of general hardware, and the network structure of multiple data collection points shows good performance in the process of high-speed data transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Link quality prediction is a fundamental component of the wireless network protocols and is essential for routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Effective link quality prediction can select high-quality links for communication and improve the reliability of data transmission. In order to improve the accuracy of the link quality prediction model and reduce the model complexity, the link quality prediction model based on the light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM-LQP) is proposed in this paper. Specifically, agglomerative hierarchical clustering and manual division are combined to grade the link quality and obtain the labels of samples. Then, light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM) classification algorithm and Focal Loss are used to estimate the link quality grades. In order to reduce the impact of data imbalance, Borderline-SMOTE is employed to oversample the minority link quality samples. Finally, LightGBM-LQP predicts link quality grade at the next moment with historical link quality information. The experimental results on data collected from a real-world WSNs show that the proposed model has better prediction accuracy and shorter predicting time compared to related models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have turned into a leading area of research over the course of the last few decades as they have been employed in various application domains. Since traditional approaches configure WSNs statically, their dynamic reconfiguration represents a difficult challenge. To address this challenge, clustering techniques can be integrated into WSNs. In the present paper, we present a comprehensive review of some of the recently proposed clustering protocols (from the year 2003 to 2021) that have been applied to WSNs. In this survey, clustering algorithms are categorized into four classes, namely (1) cluster-based protocols for homogeneous nodes, (2) cluster-based protocols for heterogeneous nodes, (3) clustering protocols based on fuzzy logic methods, and (4) clustering protocols based on heuristic methods. This categorization was carried out based on these protocols' network organization as well as the techniques used for managing the procedures of clustering. For the purpose of evaluating the efficiency of these protocols, we take into account features, performance as well as clustering methodologies as the main parameters used in the comparison of these four categories of clustering approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet of Things (IoT) is a recent paradigm to improve human lifestyle. Nowadays, number devices are connected to the Internet drastically. Thus, the people can control and monitor the physical things in real-time without delay. The IoT plays a vital role in all kind of fields in our world such as agriculture, livestock, transport, and healthcare, grid system, connected home, elderly people carrying system, cypher physical system, retail, and intelligent systems. In IoT energy conservation is a challenging task, as the devices are made up of low-cost and low-power sensing devices and local processing. IoT networks have significant challenges in two areas: network lifespan and energy usage. Therefore, the clustering is a right choice to prolong the energy in the network. In LEACH clustering protocol, sometimes the same node acts as CH again and again probabilistically. To overcome these issues, this paper proposes the Energy-Aware Cluster-based Routing (EACRLEACH) protocol in WSN based IoT. The Cluster Head (CH) selection is a crucial task in clustering protocol inWSN based IoT. In EACR-LEACH, the CH is selected by using the routing metrics, Residual Energy (RER), Number of Neighbors (NoN), Distance between Sensor Node and Sink (Distance) and Number of Time Node Act as CH (NTNACH). An extensive simulation is conducted on MATLAB 2019a. The accomplishment of EACR-LEACH is compared to LEACH and SE-LEACH. The proposed EACR-LEACH protocol extends the network's lifetime by 4%-8% and boosts throughput by 16%-24%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wireless sensor network (WSN) is frequently being used for increasing the data collection and monitoring critical parameters. Major challenge in WSN design is achieving the better energy efficiency and latency considering the dynamic sink location. Lots of research has been done for improving the performance of WSN systems in wide range of applications. Prime goal of this paper is to evaluate the performance of WSN routing under the grid‐based dynamic sink locations. Later the performance of various existing critical protocols is compared to route data over centralized server. Various applications of WSNs are tabulated along with the sensor utilization. The paper contributed in three passes. Initial contribution of this research is to identify the issues and limitations of present WSN communication technologies. The paper contributed to present a case study to discover the implications of dynamic sink routing for building protocol to extend network's lifetime. The effectiveness of several clustering‐based WSN routing algorithms is first compared in this paper. After that, the protocol with the longest network life is put to the test under a grid‐based dynamic sink routing scenario. The significance of clustering‐based protocols for improving lifetime of the network is evaluated as case study. The clustering‐based energy efficient protocol like low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) and its different variants, PEGASIS, SEP, DEC, their variants, and so on, are compared in this paper. Various performance metrics like network delays, throughput, latency, energy consumption and network lifetime are defined for studying routing protocols. Significance of dynamic sink locations performance is evaluated for Enhanced Distributed Energy Efficient Clustering (EDEEC) protocol. Overall paper covers and reviewed many critical design aspects for WSN networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the era of expansion of smart sensing interconnected devices and their growing application in complex systems, the application of wireless communication technology becomes evident. Many wireless technologies are developed to facilitate the growth of systems such as the Internet of Things and Smart Cities. The application of a particular wireless technology in a particular system depends on many factors, such as purpose, requirements, complexity, range, and node deployment. IEEE 802.15.4 is a technical standard that defines the operation of low-rate wireless personal area networks. It is used as the basis for a group of network standards and protocols designed for wireless sensor networks. In this article, the basic features of the emerging IEEE 802.15.4g SUN low-powered wireless network standard, its application scenarios, and performance analyses are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]