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Atmospheric Rivers (ARs), corridors of intensive water vapor transport, have received much attention recently due to their potentially large economic and societal impacts. However, a comprehensive understanding of the interannual variability of ARs over East Asia is still lacking. This study examines the frequency of AR occurrence over East Asia based on the EAR5 reanalysis. It is shown that the frequency of AR occurrence over East Asia displays obvious seasonality, with its peak in early boreal summer. ARs contribute to up to 50% of total precipitation and largely modulate the interannual variability of precipitation in East Asia during early boreal summer. The interannual variability of ARs over East Asia during early boreal summer is largely controlled by the Indo-western Pacific Ocean Capacitor (IPOC) effect, which is mainly triggered by El Niño-Southern Oscillation and sometimes by Indian Ocean dipole. During early boreal summer, a higher frequency of AR occurrence over East Asia is associated with anomalous anticyclonic circulation (AAC) over the Indo-western Pacific region. The AAC, the atmospheric signal of the IPOC mode, indicates an enhanced East Asian summer monsoon and a northwestward shift of the western North Pacific subtropical high, favoring the AR occurrence over East Asia. This study illustrates that a strong positive Indian Ocean dipole event could impact AR activity over East Asia in the following summer by triggering the IPOC effect. The IPOC-related signals 2–4 months ahead could be useful to predict the AR occurrence over East Asia during early boreal summer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A marine heatwave (MHW) is typically defined as an anomalous warm event in the surface ocean, with wide-ranging impacts on marine and socio-economic systems. The surface warming associated with MHWs can penetrate into the deep ocean; however, the vertical structure of MHWs is poorly known in the global ocean. Here, we identify four main types of MHWs with different vertical structures using Argo profiles: shallow, subsurface-reversed, subsurface-intensified, and deep MHWs. These MHW types are characterized by different spatial distributions with hotspots of subsurface-reversed and subsurface-intensified MHWs at low latitudes and shallow and deep MHWs at middle-high latitudes. These vertical structures are influenced by ocean dynamical processes, including oceanic planetary waves, boundary currents, eddies, and mixing. The area and depth of all types of MHWs exhibit significant increasing trends over the past two decades. These results contribute to a better understanding of the physical drivers and ecological impacts of MHWs in a warming climate. The authors identify four main types of vertical structures of marine heatwaves, with different impact depths and spatio-temporal distributions, that are influenced by multiscale ocean dynamical processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The eastern boundary current of the tropical Indian Ocean (IO) connects the equatorial/south tropical IO, contributing to the meridional heat and salinity exchange. As a part of the IO tropical gyre, the meridional current in the eastern IO tropical gyre (East Sumatra Current, ESC) flows southward in the mean state. However, the route of this current varies with months. Drifter trajectories display an exceptional route that turns southeastward before reaching Sumatra in the austral winter and spring, considered the interior ESC. This study uses observations and reanalysis data sets to investigate the seasonal structure and forcing mechanisms behind the interior ESC. The velocity is decomposed into geostrophic and wind‐driven components. The results suggest that the geostrophic component plays a dominant role in the ESC recirculating early from April to June. The southward geostrophic currents are mainly caused by positive zonal temperature gradients, which are induced by both the cold anomaly of the Chagos Dome and the warm water carried by the Indonesian Throughflow, particularly in April and May. Meanwhile, the annual Rossby wave contributes to the temperature anomaly of the Chagos Dome. During the monsoon that prevails after July, the wind‐driven component increases and becomes the primary forcing, accompanying the slowdown of geostrophic velocity. Therefore, the local wind stress, wave propagation, and water mass transport account for the formation of the seasonal interior ESC. Plain Language Summary: The eastern boundary current of the tropical Indian Ocean (ESC) is an important ocean current that contributes to the heat‐salinity exchange of the Indian Ocean (IO) tropical gyre. By using drifters and reanalysis data sets, the routes and seasonal evolution of ESC are investigated. The drifter trajectories reveal an exceptional route, which is closer to the interior IO. Indonesian Throughflow brings warm water into the southeast tropical Indian Ocean and induces the positive gradient together with the cold anomaly of the Chagos Dome. The zonal gradient of potential temperature accounts for the formation of the interior ESC. Furthermore, the formation of ESC cannot be fully explained by geostrophic currents. The wind‐driven currents indicate an enhancement effect of the ESC during the austral winter, together forcing the interior ESC. Key Points: Drifter trajectories display an exceptional route of the meridional current in the eastern Indian Ocean tropical gyreThe positive zonal gradient of potential temperature dominates the southward vertical shear in the southeast tropical Indian OceanThe formation of the interior East Sumatra Current is due to the prevailing monsoon, wave propagation, and water mass transport [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the upper-ocean absolute geostrophic currents in the southern Indian Ocean are constructed using Argo temperature and salinity data from the middepth (1000 m) zonal velocity derived from the Argo float trajectory. The results reveal alternating quasi-zonal striation-like structures of middepth zonal velocity in the equatorial and southern tropical Indian Ocean. Specifically, the eastward time-mean flows are located at the equator and 2°, 5°, 8°, 13°, 16°, 18°–19°, and 21°–22°S, with a meridional scale of ∼300 km. The generation mechanisms of the striation-like zonal velocity structure differ between the near-equatorial and off-equatorial regions. The triad of baroclinic Rossby wave instability plays a significant role in near-equatorial striations. In the south, the high potential vorticity (PV) of Antarctic intermediate water and low PV of southern Indian Ocean Subantarctic Mode Water lead to strong baroclinic instability, which increases the eddy kinetic energy in the middepth layer, thus contributing to a turbulent PV gradient. The convergence/divergence of the eddy PV flux generates the quasi-zonal striations. The meridional scale of the striations is controlled by the most unstable wavelength of baroclinic instability, which explains the observations. Significance Statement: The middepth zonal velocity resembles a system of eastward/westward jets with a considerably smaller width than the larger-scale ocean surface circulation. Such a phenomenon always occurs in a turbulent ocean that presents eddy or eddy–mean flow interactions. This study used float observations to reveal a robust middepth zonal velocity in the southern tropical Indian Ocean, where the width of the eastward time-mean flows is approximately 300 km. Smaller eddies drive the zonal currents with a smaller width, and the energy of the eddies is released from the unstable vertical structure at middepths. This study provides new insights into the generation mechanism of small-width zonal current structures in the deep ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the Argo and multi‐satellite observations, this study investigates the asymmetric response of sea surface salinity (SSS) to two extreme positive and negative Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events in the southern tropical Indian Ocean (TIO). During positive IOD events, the easterly wind anomalies trigger zonal freshwater advection along the equator, decreasing SSS, while cold sea surface temperature (SST) depress the convective precipitation in the southeastern TIO (SETIO), increasing the SSS. Contrast SSS anomalies along the equator and in the SETIO show opposite phases during positive and negative IOD events. These SSS anomalies have enhanced in recent years, reaching the strongest in the extreme negative IOD in 2016 and positive IOD in 2019. The case study shows that positive SSS anomalies occurred in the southern TIO during both positive and negative IOD events in 2016 and 2019, suggesting significant asymmetry in SSS. Analysis of the mixed layer salinity budget shows that the local precipitation and the entrainment associated with the upwelling Rossby waves played an essential role in the SSS increase in 2016, while the decreased precipitation and horizontal advection caused by the westward South Equatorial Current contributed to the SSS increase in 2019. Further analyses suggest that SSS response is more sensitive to thermocline shoaling than deepening, and SSS response to precipitation is greater at shallower mixed layer than at deeper ones, which is the main reason for the asymmetric response of the SSS to negative and positive IOD events. Plain Language Summary: Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is one of the leading climate modes in the Indian Ocean, which impacts changes in temperature, precipitation, and salinity. This study reveals significant asymmetric responses in SSS during the decay phase of positive and negative IOD events. During the mature phase of positive and negative IOD events, there are opposite changes in sea surface temperature, atmospheric circulation, rainfall, and SSS in the equatorial and southeastern tropical Indian Ocean (SETIO). However, SSS increases in the SETIO during the decay phase of both positive and negative IOD events, revealing an asymmetric feature. This asymmetric structure of SSS anomalies has strengthened recently and reached extremes in the 2016 negative IOD event and the 2019 positive IOD event. The upwelling (downwelling) Rossby waves play an important role in the asymmetric response of SSS anomalies in the southern TIO since the SSS response is more sensitive to thermocline shoaling than deepening, and the shallower mixed layer may imply the SSS response to precipitation anomaly. Key Points: Contrast sea surface salinity (SSS) anomalies occur in the equatorial and southeastern tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) during the mature phases of Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)SSS anomalies are out of phase during positive and negative IOD events but show an asymmetric change in the southern TIOThe asymmetry is due to different SSS responses to precipitation and thermocline changes associated with the ocean Rossby waves [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spatio‐temporal characteristics of the interannual variability and long‐term trend of the marine heatwaves (MHWs) and related dynamic mechanisms in the western equatorial Indian Ocean (WEIO) are investigated using satellite observations. A prominent MHW hot spot is found in a region of the WEIO (48°E−54°E, 2°S–2°N), with a mean MHWs' intensity, duration, and frequency of 1.54°C, 13.33 days, and 1.97 times, respectively. MHWs in the hot spot region have significant interannual variability after removing the long‐term trend, associated with Indo‐Pacific major climate modes. In 1982/1983, 1983/1984, 1987/1988, 1997/1998, 2006/2007, 2009/2010, 2011/2012, 2012/2013, 2014/2015, 2015/2016, and 2019/2020, the MHWs occurred with longer duration, higher frequency, and more total days. These years correspond to a positive Indian Ocean Dipole, or an El Niño event, or both. The occurrence of MHWs accompanied by anomalous positive sea surface height suggests that oceanic planetary wave processes modulate MHWs in the WEIO. Westward‐propagating downwelling equatorial Rossby waves triggered by anomalous equatorial easterly winds drive the convergence of warm upper‐ocean water and weaken the upwelling of cool subsurface water, which favor anomalously warm sea surface temperature (SST) and the occurrence of MHWs. In addition, the westward‐propagating off‐equatorial downwelling Rossby waves in the southern tropical Indian Ocean also affect MHWs in the WEIO through the propagation and reflection of waves. The annual MHW frequency, duration, and total days in the hot spot region increase up to 1.56 times, 4.95 days, and 31.72 days per decade, respectively, related to the significant increase in mean SST under global warming. Plain Language Summary: Marine heatwaves (MHWs) are anomalous warming events in the ocean that can be disastrous for the global marine ecosystem and lead to local socioeconomic losses. The western equatorial Indian Ocean (WEIO), as the western pole of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and the upwelling region where the Indian Ocean monsoon prevails, experiences strong MHWs. This study shows the characteristics and dynamic mechanisms of MHWs in the WEIO. The MHWs had a significant interannual variability during 1982–2020, associated with the positive IOD and El Niño events. It was found that oceanic planetary wave processes cause the occurrence of MHWs in the WEIO. Westward‐propagating downwelling equatorial Rossby waves and off‐equatorial downwelling Rossby waves in the southern tropical Indian Ocean increase sea surface temperature in the WEIO by suppressing upwelling and entrainment. Under global warming, increasing frequency, duration, and annual days of MHWs are found in the WEIO. Global warming is consistently one of the main causes of extreme warm events. Understanding the characteristics and mechanisms that drive the occurrence of MHWs in the WEIO is a step toward predicting these extreme events. Key Points: Marine heatwaves in the western equatorial Indian Ocean (WEIO) have significant interannual variability related to the Indo‐Pacific climateMarine heatwaves in the WEIO are mainly driven by westward‐propagating downwelling equatorial Rossby waves and off‐equatorial Rossby wavesThe frequency and duration of marine heatwaves exhibited significant increasing trends in the WEIO from 1982 to 2020 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, daily outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) product is used to detect the atmospheric intraseasonal oscillation (ISO) in the eastern tropical Indian Ocean (TIO). A 50–80-day ISO is identified south of the equator, peaking in boreal winter and propagating eastward. The mechanisms underneath are investigated using observational data and reanalysis products. The results suggest that the 50–80-day atmospheric ISO is enhanced by ocean dynamic processes during December–January. Monsoon transition in October–November causes large wind variability along the equator. Equatorial sea surface height/thermocline anomalies appear off Sumatra due to the accumulative effects of the wind variability, leading the atmospheric 50–80-day ISO by ~ 5–6 weeks. The wind-driven ocean equatorial dynamics are reflected from the Sumatra coast as downwelling oceanic Rossby waves, which deepen the thermocline and contribute to the SST warming in the southeastern TIO, affecting local atmospheric conditions. It offers insights into the role of ocean dynamics in the intensification of 50–80-day atmospheric ISOs over the eastern TIO and explains the seasonal peak of the eastward-propagating ISO during boreal winter. These results have implications for intraseasonal predictability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzed the downwelling Rossby waves in the south Indian Ocean (IO)-induced spring asymmetric mode and the relationship with the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) event based on observations and reanalysis datasets. The westward downwelling Rossby waves favor significant sea surface temperature (SST) warming in the Seychelles thermocline dome that triggers atmosphere response and the asymmetric mode in spring. The zonal sea level pressure gradient causes anomalous easterly winds in the central and eastern equatorial IO, cooling the SST off Sumatra–Java. Meanwhile, the remainder of the downwelling Rossby waves reach the west coast, transform to northward coastal-trapped waves, and then reflect as eastward downwelling Kelvin waves along the equator. The downwelling Kelvin waves reach the Sumatra–Java coast during late spring to early summer, favoring SST warming in the southeastern tropical Indian Ocean. Thus, there are two types of ocean–atmosphere response almost at the same time along the equator. The final SST status depends on which process is stronger and, as a consequence, triggers a negative or a positive phase of the IOD event in the fall season. The results show four positive and three negative IOD events related to the above processes from 1960 to 2019. The strong downwelling Rossby waves are easier to induce an intense asymmetric mode and negative IOD event, usually associated with preceding strong El Niño in the Pacific. In contrast, the weak downwelling Rossby waves tend to induce a weak asymmetric mode and positive IOD event, usually associated with preceding weak El Niño or anomalous anticyclonic atmospheric circulation in the southeastern IO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Southern Ocean (SO) is one of the key regions in absorbing and storing anthropogenic heat. An analysis of the CMIP6 models finds a distinct warming minimum/cooling and freshening in the subtropical ocean thermocline of the south Indian Ocean (SIO) under a medium-emission scenario (SSP245). The warming minimum/cooling has also been found in other warming scenarios in previous studies. However, the freshening here has received less attention. On account of increased precipitation in the models, the SO high latitudes get fresher in a warmer world. We show that this freshening anomaly is advected to the north of the deep mixed layer by the horizontal current and then subducts into the ocean interior in the SIO. As a result, the isopycnal surfaces become fresher, deeper, and cooler. This freshening and cooling signal then propagates to the north along isopycnals through the subtropical gyre and leads to freshening and cooling on the depth coordinates where the vertical movement of isopycnals (heaving) is insignificant. Lacking deep-enough mixed layers, the other two basins show smaller freshening and cooling signs in the models. Here the importance of freshening in temperature redistribution in the ocean interior in the SIO under extensive global warming is emphasized. The result helps interpret the future heat storage in the SO in a warmer world. Significance Statement: The Southern Ocean (SO) is a key region in absorbing and storing anthropogenic heat. The observed past and simulated future warming in the SO show maximum values between 40° and 45°S and minimum values downward and northward of the deep mixed layers. CMIP6 models show the same pattern, and it is found that this pattern is most distinguished in the south Indian Ocean. The freshening anomaly advected to the deep mixed layers subducts into the ocean interior, leading to freshening and cooling signals on isopycnals. These signals spread with the subtropical gyre and induce warming minimum/cooling there. The result would help interpret the warming pattern in the SO in a warmer world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the South Equatorial Current (SEC) in the Indian Ocean, 18 drifters were deployed off Sumatra‐Java during boreal spring 2019. These drifter observations revealed a large SEC meander that swung southward about 1,100 km during 40 days along ∼100°E. The southward motion occurred on the eastern edge of the Seychelles‐Chagos thermocline ridge, accompanied by an anticyclonic eddy/Rossby wave from the east, indicated by the geostrophic velocity induced by the zonal pressure gradient. Meanwhile, the ageostrophic velocity induced by the southeasterly wind also contributes to this southward motion. This is verified by a Lagrangian Trajectory Model in which drifter trajectories are well reproduced using Chinese‐French Oceanic SATellite winds products. Further analysis of the historical drifters with similar trajectories reveals that the geostrophic and ageostrophic currents jointly drive drifters to move southward. Ageostrophic component could contribute up to 45% of the southward movement of the SEC meander. Plain Language Summary: The South Equatorial Current (SEC) is westward in the tropical Indian Ocean. During boreal spring 2019, 18 drifters were deployed off Sumatra‐Java, and their trajectories show a large SEC meander, with a typical drifter moved southward over 1,100 km during 40 days along ∼100°E. The geostrophic component, associated with the Seychelles‐Chagos thermocline ridge and an anticyclonic eddy/Rossby wave, and ageostrophic component, induced by southeasterly wind, jointly drive drifters to move southward. Further diagnoses of historical drifters show that the ageostrophic component could take up to 45% contribution in the southward movement in the SEC meander. Key Points: South Equatorial Current in the Indian Ocean advected drifters southward more than 1,100 km within 40 days (∼32 cm s−1) in 2019Combined effects of the zonal pressure gradient and the southeasterly wind contribute to the southward movementSouthward movement usually occurs in spring and summer, contributing from ageostrophic current up to ∼45% [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the climate response to a sea surface temperature (SST) warming imposed over the southwest tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) in a coupled ocean–atmosphere model. The results indicate that the southwest TIO SST warming can remotely modulate the atmospheric circulation over the western North Pacific Ocean (WNP) via interbasin air–sea interaction during early boreal summer. The southwest TIO SST warming induces a "C shaped" wind response with northeasterly and northwesterly anomalies over the north and south TIO, respectively. The northeasterly wind anomalies contribute to the north TIO SST warming via a positive wind–evaporation–SST (WES) feedback after the Asian summer monsoon onset. In June, the easterly wind response extends into the WNP, inducing an SST cooling by WES feedback on the background trade winds. Both the north TIO SST warming and the WNP SST cooling contribute to an anomalous anticyclonic circulation (AAC) over the WNP. The north TIO SST warming, WNP SST cooling, and AAC constitute an interbasin coupled mode called the Indo-western Pacific Ocean capacitor (IPOC), and the southwest TIO SST warming could be a trigger for IPOC. While the summertime southwest TIO SST warming is often associated with antecedent El Niño, the warming in 2020 seems to be related to extreme Indian Ocean dipole during the autumn of 2019. The strong southwest TIO SST warming seems to partly explain the strong summer AAC of 2020 over the WNP even without a strong antecedent El Niño. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine heatwaves (MHWs) in the tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) showed remarkable increases in duration and frequency during the satellite observing era, responding to rising sea surface temperature. Long‐lasting MHWs were found in three upwelling regions of the TIO in 2015–2016 and 2019–2020, closely related to persistent downwelling oceanic planetary waves. In 2015, a prolonged MHW (149 days) in the western TIO was initiated by the downwelling Rossby waves associated with the co‐occurring super El Niño and positive Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) events. In the following year, the negative IOD sustained the longest MHW (372 days) in the southeastern TIO, prompted by the eastward‐propagating equatorial Kelvin waves. In 2019–2020, the two longest MHWs recorded in the southwestern TIO (275 days in 2019 and 149 days in 2020) were maintained by the downwelling Rossby waves associated with the 2019 extreme IOD. This study revealed the importance of ocean dynamics in long‐lasting MHWs in the TIO. Plain Language Summary: Marine heatwaves (MHWs) are extreme sea surface warming events, which can have destructive impacts on marine ecosystems and socio‐economy. The tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) has experienced the most significant sea surface temperature warming among the global oceans in the satellite observing era since the 1980s. The increases in duration and frequency of MHWs were found statistically significant in the TIO, and further increases can be expected under global warming. Several long‐lasting MHWs occurred in recent years, associated with extreme climate modes. Internal ocean waves triggered by anomalous winds deepened the thermocline through the convergence of warm upper‐ocean water and reduced upwelling of subsurface cold water, resulting in a surface warm that facilitated the MHW formation. Thus, the consecutive propagating waves during the extreme climate events sustained the prolonged MHWs in the TIO. These results expand our understanding of the physical mechanisms responsible for MHWs in the TIO under the Indo‐Pacific climate variability and global warming. Key Points: Long‐lasting marine heatwaves (MHWs) occurred in the upwelling regions of the tropical Indian Ocean during 2015–2016 and 2019–2020The recent long‐lasting MHWs are related to the super El Niño in 2015–2016 and extreme Indian Ocean dipole in 2019Oceanic downwelling waves induced‐thermocline warming plays a crucial role in the long‐lasting MHWs [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used multiple data sets to investigate the decadal and longer time scale variability of sea surface partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) over the equatorial Pacific Ocean from 1990 to 2019. Unlike the increasing trend in the global oceanic pCO2, both the Niño 3.4 and warm pool regions featured distinct decadal variabilities. A pCO2 increasing stagnation, a hiatus stage, was identified in the Niño 3.4 region from 2010 to 2019. Further analysis demonstrated that low‐frequency pCO2 was negatively correlated with the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO) index. Both the 2009/10 and 2015/16 El Niño events and an increasing phase of IPO contributed to this long pCO2 stagnation. Correspondingly, a weaker upwelling was induced in the central and eastern tropical Pacific as the trade winds weakened and thus stagnated the increase in pCO2 in the Niño 3.4 region. Our results imply a significant impact of climate variabilities on sea surface pCO2 in the equatorial Pacific. Plain Language Summary: The equatorial Pacific Ocean is one of the largest natural sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere. It can partially reduce the CO2 absorbed by large areas of the ocean. Here we use a series of data sets to investigate the long‐term variations in the sea surface partial pressure of CO2 over the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Unlike the increasing trend in the global ocean surface pCO2 due to the continuous increase in atmospheric CO2 impacted by human activities, the equatorial Pacific Ocean features significant long‐term variabilities. The pCO2 observations and products that we used support a pCO2 increasing hiatus at the Niño 3.4 region (located in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean) since 2010. Further analysis found that the hiatus is related to El Niño events and the large‐scale, long period oscillation of the Pacific basin. Our results imply the impact of natural climate variabilities on sea surface pCO2 in this important sea area of the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Key Points: The pCO2 in the equatorial Pacific features a significant long‐term trend and decadal to interdecadal variabilityThe increasing pCO2 in the Niño 3.4 region shows stagnation since 2010 due to El Niño events and the increasing phase of the Interdecadal Pacific OscillationPacific natural climate variability mitigates the large CO2 source in the tropical Pacific Ocean [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The basin-scale wave propagation in the Southern Indian Ocean (SIO) is inferred to affect the low-frequency variability of eddy kinetic energy (EKE) within the Agulhas current system (ACS). Observations and numerical simulations indicate that westward-propagating waves, in the form of sea level variability from the east boundary, may cause "non-linear" oceanic responses (e.g., sea level and EKE) in the ACS. This is likely due to two factors: (i) the movement of wave crests and troughs continuously alters the stratification of the upper ocean, generating a positive baroclinic instability and prompting conversions of EKE from mean flow in the source regions, and (ii) wave-current interactions induce a rapid intension of an anticyclone gyre in the interior SIO and the corresponding EKE in the downstream regions. These basin-scale wave modulations may provide an additional perspective to the traditional wind driving view based on the barotropic Sverdrup relation. The local winds over the SIO play an important role in maintaining basin-scale Rossby waves in the southwest Indian Ocean and further modulating oceanic low-frequency variability in a "quasi-linear" way. • The basin-scale wave propagation in the Southern Indian Ocean (SIO) have an influence on the dynamics of the Agulhas current system. (ACS). • The waves can alter the stratification of the upper ocean, as well as strengthen the anticyclone gyre in the interior SIO and the corresponding EKE in the downstream regions. • These basin-scale wave modulations may provide an additional perspective to the traditional wind driving view based on the barotropic Sverdrup relation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Submesoscale density fronts and the associated processes of frontogenesis and symmetric instability (SI) are investigated in the northwest Pacific subtropical countercurrent (STCC) system by a high-resolution simulation and diagnostic analysis. Both satellite observations and realistic simulation show active surface fronts with a horizontal scale of ~20 km in the STCC upper ocean. Frontogenesis-induced buoyancy advection is detected to rapidly sharpen these density fronts. The direct straining effect of larger-scale geostrophic flows is a primary influence on the buoyancy-gradient frontogenetic tendency and frontal baroclinic potential vorticity (PV) enhancement. The enhanced lateral buoyancy gradients in conjunction with atmospheric forced surface buoyancy loss can produce a negative Ertel PV and trigger frontal SI in the STCC region. Up to 30% of the mixed layer (ML) inside a typical eddy has negative PV in the high-resolution simulation. As a result, the cross-front ageostrophic secondary circulations tend to restratify the surface boundary layer and induce a large vertical velocity reaching ~100 m day−1, substantially facilitating the vertical communication of the STCC system. At the same time, the SI is identified to be responsible for a forward cascade of geostrophic kinetic energy in the STCC region, despite the coexistence of ML eddies and SI in the deep winter ML. Therefore, these active density fronts and their SI-associated submesoscale processes play important roles in the enhanced vertical exchanges (e.g., heat, nutrients, and carbon) and energy transfer to smaller scales in the eddy-active STCC upper ocean, as well as triggering phytoplankton blooms at the periphery of eddies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on ERA-interim reanalysis dataset from 1979 to 2018, this study revisits the global and regional water cycle, as well as the water vapor transport between ocean basins. The surface of the Earth is divided into five continents and four ocean basins, water vapor budget, and its seasonal variability of each continent and ocean basin are calculated. The Indian Ocean and the Atlantic are major net water vapor source regions, ~ − 0.47 Sv and ~ −0.82 Sv, respectively, while the Pacific and the Arctic are weak net water vapor sink regions, ~ 0.04 Sv and ~ 0.06 Sv, respectively. A total of 85% of evaporation and 78% of precipitation occur at the ocean-atmosphere interface while 15% of evaporation and 22% of precipitation occur at the land-atmosphere interface. About 1.19 Sv water vapor is carried out from oceans to lands. The water vapor transport is about 0.07 Sv from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, and 0.22 Sv from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the segments. At low latitudes, both the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean transport water vapor to the Pacific, with a total of 0.29 Sv. Those results update the estimate of global and regional water vapor budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 2019 positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) was the strongest event since the 1960s which developed independently without coinciding El Niño. The dynamics is not fully understood. Here we show that in March–May, westward propagating oceanic Rossby waves, a remnant consequence of the weak 2018 Pacific warm condition, led to anomalous sea surface temperature warming in the southwest tropical Indian Ocean (TIO), inducing deep convection and anomalous easterly winds along the equator, which triggered the initial cooling in the east. In June–August, the easterly wind anomalies continued to evolve through ocean‐atmosphere coupling involving Bjerknes feedback and equatorial nonlinear ocean advection, until its maturity in September–November. This study clarifies the contribution of oceanic Rossby waves in the south TIO in different dynamic settings and reveals a new triggering mechanism for extreme IOD events that will help to understand IOD diversity. Plain Language Summary: The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is an ocean‐atmosphere coupled climatic phenomenon which can cause severe social and economic losses in the surrounding regions such as drought in the Maritime Continent/Australia and flooding in East Africa. The IOD features a see‐saw structure accompanied by an anomalous sea surface temperature gradient, winds, and oceanic adjustments. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation in the Pacific is an important trigger to a strong IOD event. However, an extreme positive IOD event occurred in 2019 without a concurrent or ensuing El Niño. We show that the thermocline warming associated with anomalous ocean downwelling in the southwest tropical Indian Ocean triggered atmospheric convection, inducing anomalous easterly winds along the equator and hence, positive feedbacks associated with an IOD event. This study may help to understand the evolution of extreme IOD and improve IOD predictability. Key Points: The oceanic downwelling Rossby waves in the south tropical Indian Ocean is key to the 2019 extreme positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)The Rossby waves induced thermocline warming, triggering wind‐evaporation‐SST feedback thus anomalous easterly winds along the equatorThe easterly wind anomalies further triggered the Bjerknes feedback and other positive feedbacks and established an extreme IOD [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identifies a new triggering mechanism of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) from the Southern Hemisphere. This mechanism is independent from the El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and tends to induce the IOD before its canonical peak season. The joint effects of this mechanism and ENSO may explain different lifetimes and strengths of the IOD. During its positive phase, development of sea surface temperature cold anomalies commences in the southern Indian Ocean, accompanied by an anomalous subtropical high system and anomalous southeasterly winds. The eastward movement of these anomalies enhances the monsoon off Sumatra‐Java during May–August, leading to an early positive IOD onset. The pressure variability in the subtropical area is related with the Southern Annular Mode, suggesting a teleconnection between high‐latitude and midlatitude climate that can further affect the tropics. To include the subtropical signals may help model prediction of the IOD event. Plain Language Summary: An Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) at its positive phase featuring anomalously high and low sea surface temperature (SST) in the west and east equatorial Indian Ocean, respectively, shifts atmosphere convection westward, causing severe floods and droughts in surrounding west and east Indian Ocean‐rim regions. Known triggering mechanisms, such as the external El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO), cannot explain development or intensity of many IOD events. Here we find a novel triggering mechanism of the IOD from the Southern Hemisphere, in which the subtropical high pressure and wind anomalies forcing cool SST anomalies evolve to trigger onset of an IOD event via enhancing the monsoon off Sumatra‐Java. This Southern Hemisphere Mechanism can operate independently from the ENSO and commences earlier than the ENSO forcing, thus providing explanation of different IOD characteristics and a longer prediction lead time. Key Points: A triggering mechanism of the IOD originated from the Southern Hemisphere is identifiedThe Southern Hemisphere Mechanism is independent from ENSO and associated with subtropical and high‐latitude climatic variabilityThe joint effects of such mechanism and ENSO produce different characteristics of the IOD [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analysis of Argo data reveals that the subantarctic mode water (SAMW) in the South Indian Ocean (SIO), characterized by a vertical potential vorticity (PV) minimum, decreases by 10% in volume from 2004 to 2018. Most of this decrease occurs at the 26.8–26.9 kg m−3 density range which forms southwest of Australia, while a slight volume increase occurs at 26.6–26.8 kg m−3. Further analysis indicates that the weakening of the Mascarene High and westerly winds in the SIO reduces the evaporation‐precipitation, surface heat flux, and Ekman pumping and shoals the mixed layer southwest of Australia, which leads to a volume decrease at 26.8–26.9 kg m−3 in approximately 3 years. West of 90°E, the parameters exhibit the opposite change, leading to a volume increase at 26.6–26.8 kg m−3. This result suggests that surface winds play an important role in the variability of the SIO SAMW volume during the Argo period. Plain Language Summary: During austral winter in the subantarctic zone, a water mass called the subantarctic mode water with homogeneous properties (temperature, salinity) forms, sinks, and moves to the interior of the ocean. The formation and transport of the mode water are crucial for the climate, as the water takes up heat, freshwater, carbon, oxygen, and nutrients into the ocean interior. We find a distinct volume loss of the mode water in the South Indian Ocean from 2004 to 2018. Although this mode water forms in broad density ranges in different regions, the volume loss only occurs in the dense mode water south of Australia. Moreover, the volume of the light mode water, which forms in the center of the South Indian Ocean, slightly increases. We find that surface winds control the surface heat flux and water convergence, which determine the volume change here. These winds tend to vary oppositely in the two different mode water formation regions and make the volume vary in opposition phases. This study reveals the layer dependence of the mode water volume variation and reinforces the importance of atmospheric forcing, which would possibly help interpret the heat uptake in the Southern Ocean. Key Points: Argo data reveal a subantarctic mode water volume loss in the South Indian Ocean over the period 2004–2018Most of the volume loss occurs in the density range of 26.8–26.9 kg m−3, while a volume increase occurs at 26.6–26.8 kg m−3Changes in the SAMW volume are controlled by surface forcing, which is closely related to the Mascarene High variation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The south tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) warms following a strong El Niño, affecting Indo-Pacific climate in early boreal summer. While much attention has been given to the southwest TIO where the mean thermocline is shallow, this study focuses on the subsequent warming in the southeast TIO, where the mean sea surface temperature (SST) is high and deep convection is strong in early summer. The southeast TIO warming induces an anomalous meridional circulation with descending (ascending) motion over the northeast (southeast) TIO. It further anchors a "C-shaped" surface wind anomaly pattern with easterlies (westerlies) in the northeast (southeast) TIO, causing a persistent northeast TIO warming via wind–evaporation–SST feedback. The southeast TIO warming lags the southwest TIO warming by about one season. Ocean wave dynamics play a key role in linking the southwest and southeast TIO warming. South of the equator, the El Niño–forced oceanic Rossby waves, which contribute to the southwest TIO warming, are reflected as eastward-propagating oceanic Kelvin waves along the equator on the western boundary. The Kelvin waves subsequently depress the thermocline and develop the southeast TIO warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variability of oceanic salinity, an indicator of the global hydrological cycle, plays an important role in the basin-scale ocean circulation. In this study, interannual to decadal variability of salinity in the upper layer of the Indian Ocean is investigated using Argo observations since 2004 and data assimilating model outputs (1992–2015). The southeastern Indian Ocean shows the strongest interannual to decadal variability of upper-ocean salinity in the Indian Ocean. Westward propagation of salinity anomalies along isopycnal surfaces is detected in the southern Indian Ocean and attributed to zonal salinity advection anomalies associated with the Indonesian Throughflow and the South Equatorial Current. Composite and salinity budget analyses show that horizontal advection is a major contributor to the interannual to decadal salinity variability of the southern Indian Ocean, and the local air–sea freshwater flux plays a secondary role. The Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) and El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) modulate the salinity variability in the southeastern Indian Ocean, with low salinity anomalies occurring during the negative phases of the PDO and ENSO and high salinity anomalies during their positive phases. The Indonesian Throughflow plays an essential role in transmitting the PDO- and ENSO-related salinity signals into the Indian Ocean. A statistical model is proposed based on the PDO index, which successfully predicts the southeastern Indian Ocean salinity variability with a lead time of 10 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indo-western Pacific Ocean capacitor (IPOC) effect induces coherent climate variations over the Indo-western Pacific Ocean with significant sea-surface temperature (SST) anomalies over the South China Sea (SCS). Most IPOC events are related to El Ni n ∼ o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), occurring in the post-ENSO years. The coral δ18O and Sr/Ca precisely recorded climate variations as proxies for SST. This study investigated the IPOC via a reduced major axis (RMA) regression analysis based on coral records in the SCS. The coral records of Yongxing Island show a double SST peak during El Niño events after the 1960s, one in the mature phase and the other in the post-El Ni n ∼ o summer. Tropical Indian Ocean warming persists into summer and anchors an anomalous anticyclonic circulation over the western North Pacific, extending the ENSO effect on the SCS SST through the IPOC effect, despite the decay of El Ni n ∼ o. The corals from Yongle Atoll, Dongsha Atoll, and the region off central Vietnam well recorded the IPOC impacts associated with two strong El Ni n ∼ o events (2009–2010 and 1997–1998) on SST anomalies in summer. According to coral records off central Vietnam, the 1959 IPOC effect occurred without an antecedent El Ni n ∼ o event. The results show that coral proxies could capture the IPOC events in the SCS and prove that IPOC could act as an intrinsic climate mode in the Indo-western Pacific Ocean. • Coral proxies from Yongxing Island record the IPOC events since 1960. • Most IPOC events recorded by corals are associated with the El Ni n ∼ o events. • Some IPOC events, e.g., recorded off central Vietnam in 1959, occur without antecedent El Ni n ∼ o events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Argo float trajectory data has been used to estimate the velocities of mid-depth (1000 db) currents in the North Indian Ocean (NIO). The structure of the upper ocean absolute geostrophic currents can be derived more accurately from the Argo temperature and salinity profiles by referring to the estimated velocities rather than by assuming a level of "no motion". The derived flow field reveals that the eastward zonal velocities generate striation-like structures in the Arabian Sea, which is most prominent above the layer of 500 db layer, with a meridional scale of ~300 km; however, such structures are barely observed in the Bay of Bengal. This meridional scale as well as the distribution of the mid-depth striations are unique to the NIO, as compared with the other ocean basins. The nonlinear 1 1 2 -layer reduced-gravity model combined with the triad baroclinic Rossby wave interaction theory have been used to determine the essential factors controlling the characteristics of the quasi-zonal striation structure. Compared with the North Pacific Ocean, the meridional scale in the NIO is narrower, and is caused by the smaller basin size in the equatorial zone, rather than by the semiannual wind stress forcing period or the eastern boundary angle. Furthermore, the coastal trapped Kelvin waves significantly contribute to the generation of the zonal striations in the Arabian Sea. • Mid-depth striations in the North Indian Ocean have been observed by the Argo trajectory data and T/S profiles. • The striations are more prominent in the Arabian Sea while barely observed in the Bay of Bengal. • The meridional scale of those striations is 300 km, which is because of the smaller basin scale in the equatorial zone. • Coastal trapped Kelvin waves contribute significantly to the generation of the zonal striation in the Arabian Sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indo-Pacific Region is a noteworthy area with the sophisticated ocean and atmosphere system. Here, we focus on the low-frequency signals related to the ocean and atmosphere variation and its impact on dynamic and thermodynamic processes in this region. Dynamically, the sea level rise signals in the tropical west Pacific (WTP) and the southeast Indian Ocean (IO) are closely linked to each other through the pathways of oceanic waveguide within the Indonesian Seas. The low-frequency westward-propagating wave originated in the tropical Pacific is the major cause for the southeast IO sea level change. At this linkage, the interannual wave signal is dominated by the wind variability along the equatorial Pacific and the interdecadal signal is driven mainly by the wind curl off the equatorial Pacific, respectively associated with the El Nino and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. The sea level variability in the southwest IO is mainly related to the local wind. Thermodynamically, we find a contrasting trend pattern of sea surface salinity between the WTP and the southeastern tropical IO since mid-1990s, with significant salinity increase in the WTP and freshening in the southeastern tropical IO. These trends were associated a strengthening trend of the Walker Circulation over the tropical Indo-Pacific. Precipitation, surface level pressure and wind also underwent a decadal shift in mid-1990s. Understanding low-frequency processes in the tropical Indo-Pacific will better inform on how the tropical hydrological cycle will be affected by the natural variability and a warming climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An unusual positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) event occurred in 2015 associated with the 2015/16 extreme El Niño. Unlike the canonical IOD, sea surface temperature (SST) warming in the west-central tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) dominated the strong zonal SST gradient as cooling off Sumatra-Java was weak. Over the southeastern TIO, deeper thermocline has suppressed the upwelling cooling since 2012. Such deepened thermocline related to a low-frequency adjustment and curtailed cool anomalies in the 2015 positive IOD but favored warm anomalies in the 2016 negative IOD. Based on statistical analyses, ocean assimilation data confirm that an IOD-like pattern exists in the TIO on decadal time-scale. During a negative decadal IOD-like phase, thermocline is deeper in the southeastern TIO; the thermocline-SST feedback is unfavorable for positive IOD occurrence and intensity, but conducive to negative IOD events. Thus, we propose that the 2015-2016 IOD events are modulated by the low-frequency variability of thermocline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remarkable warming of the Southern Indian Ocean during the recent two decades is assessedusing a heat budget analysis based on the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of theOcean version 4 release 3 model results. The annual mean temperature averaged in theupper-700 m Southern Indian Ocean during 1998-2015 has experienced significant warmingat a rate of 1.03×10−2∘C/year. A heat budget analysis indicates that the increase is mostlydriven by decreased cooling from net air-sea heat flux and increased warming from heatadvection. Increased Indonesian Throughflow advection is the largest contributor to warmingthe upper 700 m of the Southern Indian Ocean, while the reduction of surface turbulent heatflux is of secondary importance. These results expand our understanding of the decadalheat balance in the Indian Ocean and of Indo-Pacific decadal climate variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The circulation structure in the western tropical Indian Ocean (WTIO) was investigated based on surface drifters and Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA), with particular attention to the characteristics of the circulation structure associated with seasonal monsoon transitions. Surface drifter trajectories manifest three distinct seasonally dependent patterns of western boundary currents in the WTIO. The northward Somali Current (SC) flows across the equator to ∼10 °N in the boreal summer (June to August; JJA). The northward SC turns offshore near the equator during monsoon transitions. The southward SC feeds the South Equatorial Countercurrent together with the northward East African Coast Current in the boreal winter (December to February; DJF). While during the monsoon transition (MAM and SON), drifters prefer to turn eastward and feed the strong equatorial currents. Based on satellite observations, the results of a balanced diagnostic model demonstrate that the geostrophic component U ζ and the wind-driven component U τ predominate the mean state and the seasonal variations of circulation in the WTIO. The vertical motion shows that upwelling primarily occurs along the coasts of Somali and Oman and is induced by offshore Ekman transport. Ekman transport and associated vertical motions constitute meridional overturning circulation. The SODA results confirm the existence of an equatorial roll in the boreal summer and winter. The results elucidate the dynamic relationships between 3-D circulation and monsoon transitions in the WTIO. • Drifter trajectories describe three seasonally dependent circulation patterns in the western tropical Indian Ocean. • The geostrophic component U ζ and wind-driven component U τ predominate the mean state and the soasonal variability of circulation. • The 3-D structures, show seasonal variability associated with monsoon transitions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Great Whirl (GW) is an anticyclonic mesoscale eddy, forming periodically in the tropical western Indian Ocean. The lifespan of the GW exhibits a marked interannual variability, which has a late generation time and short lifetime due to the abnormal local wind field in a strong positive IOD year. The anomalous northeasterly wind inputs positive wind stress curl into the ocean, which is not conducive to establishing a stable anticyclonic circulation at the early stage of GW formation. In addition, oceanic Rossby waves exert impacts on the GW generation. The abnormal Rossby waves account for the earlier generation time of the GW in 2019 despite the unfavorable local wind field. This study identifies the atypical lifespan of the GW associated with a positive IOD event and reveals the contribution of local Ekman pumping and Rossby wave propagation. • Great Whirl showed a late generation time in strong positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) years. • The abnormal wind related to strong positive IOD events is key to the unstable gyre early in the Great Whirl formation. • The Great Whirl in 2019 (a prolonged IOD year) is an exception due to abnormal Rossby waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]