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PIK3C2A is a class II member of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) family that catalyzes the phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol (PI) into PI(3)P and the phosphorylation of PI(4)P into PI(3,4)P2. At the cellular level, PIK3C2A is critical for the formation of cilia and for receptor mediated endocytosis, among other biological functions. We identified homozygous loss-of-function mutations in PIK3C2A in children from three independent consanguineous families with short stature, coarse facial features, cataracts with secondary glaucoma, multiple skeletal abnormalities, neurological manifestations, among other findings. Cellular studies of patient-derived fibroblasts found that they lacked PIK3C2A protein, had impaired cilia formation and function, and demonstrated reduced proliferative capacity. Collectively, the genetic and molecular data implicate mutations in PIK3C2A in a new Mendelian disorder of PI metabolism, thereby shedding light on the critical role of a class II PI3K in growth, vision, skeletal formation and neurological development. In particular, the considerable phenotypic overlap, yet distinct features, between this syndrome and Lowe's syndrome, which is caused by mutations in the PI-5-phosphatase OCRL, highlight the key role of PI metabolizing enzymes in specific developmental processes and demonstrate the unique non-redundant functions of each enzyme. This discovery expands what is known about disorders of PI metabolism and helps unravel the role of PIK3C2A and class II PI3Ks in health and disease., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Intrauterine malnutrition is associated with increased susceptibility to chronic diseases in adulthood. Growth-restricted infants display a less favorable lipid profile already shortly postnatal. Maternal low protein diet (LPD) during gestation is a well-defined model of fetal programming in rodents and affects lipid metabolism of the offspring. Effects of LPD throughout gestation on physiologic relevant parameters of lipid metabolism are unclear. We aimed to determine effects of LPD on maternal-fetal cholesterol fluxes and fetal lipid synthesis in mice. Pregnant mice (dams) were fed with a control (18% casein) or an LPD (9% casein) from E0.5 onward. We quantified maternal-fetal cholesterol transport and maternal cholesterol absorption at E19.5 using stable isotopes. We determined fetal lipid biosynthesis at E19.5, after administration of (1-C)-acetate from E17.5 onward. LPD did not change fetal and maternal plasma and hepatic concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides. LPD affected neither the magnitudes of maternal-fetal cholesterol flux, maternal cholesterol absorption, nor fetal synthesis of cholesterol and palmitate (both groups, approximately 14% and approximately 13%, respectively). We conclude that LPD throughout gestation in mice does not affect maternal-fetal cholesterol transport, fetal cholesterol or fatty acid synthesis, indicating that programming effects of LPD are not mediated by short-term changes in maternal-fetal lipid metabolism.

Prenatal nutrition as influenced by the nutritional status of the mother has been identified as a determinant of adult disease. Feeding low-protein diets during pregnancy in rodents is a well-established model to induce programming events in offspring. We hypothesized that protein restriction would influence fetal lipid metabolism by inducing epigenetic adaptations. Pregnant C57BL/6J mice were exposed to a protein-restriction protocol (9% vs. 18% casein). Shortly before birth, dams and fetuses were killed. To identify putative epigenetic changes, CG-dinucleotide-rich region in the promoter of a gene (CpG island) methylation microarrays were performed on DNA isolated from fetal livers. Two hundred four gene promoter regions were differentially methylated upon protein restriction. The liver X-receptor (Lxr) alpha promoter was hypermethylated in protein-restricted pups. Lxr alpha is a nuclear receptor critically involved in control of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. The mRNA level of Lxra was reduced by 32% in fetal liver upon maternal protein restriction, whereas expression of the Lxr target genes Abcg5/Abcg8 was reduced by 56% and 51%, respectively, measured by real-time quantitative PCR. The same effect, although less pronounced, was observed in the fetal intestine. In vitro methylation of a mouse Lxra-promoter/luciferase expression cassette resulted in a 24-fold transcriptional repression. Our study demonstrates that, in mice, protein restriction during pregnancy interferes with DNA methylation in fetal liver. Lxra is a target of differential methylation, and Lxra transcription is dependent on DNA methylation. It is tempting to speculate that perinatal nutrition may influence adult lipid metabolism by DNA methylation, which may contribute to the epidemiological relation between perinatal/neonatal nutrition and adult disease.

There is increasing evidence that the metabolic state of the mother during pregnancy affects long-term glucose and lipid metabolism of the offspring. The liver X receptors (LXR)α and -β are key regulators of cholesterol, fatty acid, and glucose metabolism. LXRs are activated by oxysterols and expressed in fetal mouse liver from day 10 of gestation onward. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate whether in utero pharmacological activation of LXR would influence fetal fatty acid and glucose metabolism and whether this would affect lipid homeostasis at adult age. Exposure of pregnant mice to the synthetic LXR agonist T0901317 increased hepatic mRNA expression levels of Lxr target genes and hepatic and plasma triglyceride levels in fetuses and dams. T0901317 treatment increased absolute de novo synthesis and chain elongation of hepatic oleic acid in dams and fetuses. T0901317 exposure in utero influenced lipid metabolism in adulthood in a sex-specific manner; hepatic triglyceride content was increased (+45%) in male offspring and decreased in female offspring (-42%) when they were fed a regular chow diet compared with untreated sex controls. Plasma and hepatic lipid contents and hepatic gene expression patterns in adult male or female mice fed a high-fat diet were not affected by T0901317 pretreatment. We conclude that LXR treatment of pregnant mice induces immediate effects on lipid metabolism in dams and fetuses. Despite the profound changes during fetal life, long-term effects appeared to be rather mild and sex selective without modulating the lipid response to a high-fat diet.

Recent studies have indicated that direct intestinal secretion of plasma cholesterol significantly contributes to fecal neutral sterol loss in mice. The physiological relevance of this novel route, which represents a part of the reverse cholesterol transport pathway, has not been directly established in vivo as yet. We have developed a method to quantify the fractional and absolute contributions of several cholesterol fluxes to total fecal neutral sterol loss in vivo in mice, by assessing the kinetics of orally and intravenously administered stable isotopically labeled cholesterol combined with an isotopic approach to assess the fate of de novo synthesized cholesterol. Our results show that trans-intestinal cholesterol excretion significantly contributes to removal of blood-derived free cholesterol in C57Bl6/J mice (33% of 231 micromol/kg/day) and that pharmacological activation of LXR with T0901317 strongly stimulates this pathway (63% of 706 micromol/kg/day). Trans-intestinal cholesterol excretion is impaired in mice lacking Abcg5 (-4%), suggesting that the cholesterol transporting Abcg5/Abcg8 heterodimer is involved in this pathway. Our data demonstrate that intestinal excretion represents a quantitatively important route for fecal removal of neutral sterols independent of biliary secretion in mice. This pathway is sensitive to pharmacological activation of the LXR system. These data support the concept that the intestine substantially contributes to reverse cholesterol transport.

Human milk contains prebiotic oligosaccharides, which stimulate the growth of intestinal bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. It is unclear whether the prebiotic capacity of human milk contributes to the larger bile salt pool size and the more efficient fat absorption in infants fed human milk compared with formula. We determined the effect of prebiotic oligosaccharides on bile salt metabolism in rats. Rats were fed a control diet or an isocaloric diet containing a mixture of galactooligosaccharides (GOS), long-chain fructooligosaccharides (lcFOS), and acidified oligosaccharides (AOS) for 3 wk. We determined synthesis rate, pool size, and fractional turnover rate (FTR) of the primary bile salt cholate by using stable isotope dilution methodology. We quantified bile flow and biliary bile salt secretion rates through bile cannulation. Prebiotic intervention resulted in significant changes in fecal and colonic flora: the proportion of lactobacilli increased 344% (P < 0.01) in colon content and 139% (P < 0.01) in feces compared with the control group. The number of bifidobacteria also increased 366% (P < 0.01) in colon content and 282% in feces after the prebiotic treatment. Furthermore, pH in both colon and feces decreased significantly with 1.0 and 0.5 pH point, respectively. However, despite this alteration of intestinal bacterial flora, no significant effect on relevant parameters of bile salt metabolism and cholate kinetics was found. The present data in rats do not support the hypothesis that prebiotics naturally present in human milk contribute to a larger bile salt pool size or altered bile salt pool kinetics.