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Carbon emission is the focus of global climate change concerns. Population aging changes the level of labor structure, which directly affects the industry adjustment and will also have a long-term impact on carbon emissions. Uncovering the complex association among population aging, labor allocation, and CO2 emission is crucial for developing effective policies for low-carbon and sustainable development in China. Therefore, this study aims to analyze whether population aging contributes to reducing carbon emission intensity by regulating labor allocation. Based on provincial panel data from 2000 to 2019, the Systematic Generalized Method of Moments (Systematic GMM) model and the Bias Corrected Least Squares Estimation with Nonsymmetric Dependence Structure (Bias Corrected LSDV) model are adopted in this study. The results show that nationwide as a whole, population aging objectively inhibits human capital accumulation and, to some extent, weakens its positive carbon emission reduction effect. Meanwhile, population aging helps to mitigate the increase in carbon emissions caused by the capital-labor endowment structure. Due to the dual impact of aging and population migration, the emission reduction effect of human capital accumulation is significant in the East. The brain drain in the central and western regions further inhibits the positive effect of regional human capital accumulation. Promoting the rationalization of population mobility nationwide, reducing the brain drain in less developed regions, and directing capital into technology-intensive industrial sectors are the core keys to achieving optimal labor allocation in an aging society. This will help China meet its carbon neutrality target on schedule.

This paper argues that regional variation in the efficiency of labor allocation among German manufacturing plants plays a critical role in explaining regional disparities in productivity. In fact, we show that over 50% of the East-West productivity gap is associated with a less efficient labor allocation in former East Germany. Yet, we also demonstrate that the mere focus on East-West comparisons hides partially large differences between the German federal states. These results suggest that regional productivity differences could be substantially narrowed by a more efficient labor allocation among plants. With respect to the underlying causes, we find evidence that the regional differences in allocative efficiency are significantly correlated with differences in export intensity, market concentration and plant size.

I test how informality in the labor markets adjust to tropical cyclones, which represent exogenous, short-lived, localized, and large shocks. I leverage an individuallevel dataset extracted from the Labor Force Survey of Vietnam spanning over 24 quarters from 2013 to 2018. The results suggest that jobholders in affected areas do not face unemployment, but rather they move to less affected industries, and are more likely to take up informal employment. Thus, informal prevalence increases. Furthermore, there is no evidence of migration of the labor force., Conference Papers of Vietnam Economist Annual Meeting 2022

Tenaga kerja pada usaha hutan rakyat belum diperhitungkan sebagai faktor produksi yang penting sehingga menyebabkan pendapatan dari hutan rakyat kurang optimal. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan untuk mengetahui pendapatan dan alokasi tenaga kerja pada pengelolaan hutan rakyat serta hubungannya dengan karakter petani. Data dikumpulkan selama bulan Mei sampai Juli 2010 di Desa Ciomas, Desa Kalijaya, dan Desa Kertaharja melalui wawancara pada 60 petani yang dipilih secara sengaja. Data yang terkumpul kemudian dianalisa menggunakan analisis deskriptif kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa berdasarkan rata-rata luas pemilikan hutan, usaha hutan rakyat menyumbangkan pendapatan pada petani di Desa Ciomas, Kalijaya, dan Kertaharja Kabupaten Ciamis berturut-turut sebesar Rp 6.641.783,-/th; Rp 8.029.358,-/th, dan Rp 6.302.431,-/th. Mayoritas tenaga kerja di Desa Kalijaya dan Desa Ciomas Kabupaten Ciamis dialokasikan untuk mengelola hutan rakyat yaitu sebesar 104,77 HKP/ha/th dan 216,93 HKP/ha/th, sedangkan alokasi tenaga kerja di Desa Kertaharja sebesar 210,05 HKP/ha/th. Potensi penyerapan tenaga kerja pada sektor pertanian di Kabupaten Ciamis tergolong tinggi, yakni lebih dari 75%. Dalam hubungannya dengan alokasi tenaga kerja, secara umum usia petani mempunyai korelasi positif sedangkan luas lahan mempunyai korelasi negatif.Kata kunci: potensi serapan, alokasi tenaga kerja, pendapatan, hari kerja pria (HKP), luas lahan. Incomes and labor allocation in community forests in Ciamis RegencyAbstractLabor for private forest business has not been considered as an important production factor, which it makes the incomes from the private forests is unfavourable. The research was carried out to find out the incomes and labor allocation on private forests management as well as their correlation to farmer characteristics. Data were collected during May to July 2010 at Ciomas, Kalijaya and Kertaharja villages by interviewing sixty purposively selected farmers. Data were analyzed by qualitative and quantitative description. The results revealed that on the basis of land width ownership, the business earned an income to the farmers in Ciomas, Kalijaya and Kertaharja villages of Ciamis district were 6,641,783 IDR/year; 8,029,358 IDR/year, and 6,302,431 IDR/year, respectively. The labors in Kalijaya and Ciomas villages of Ciamis district were mostly allocated to manage private forests i.e. 104.77 MDW/ha/year and 216.93 MDW/ha/year respectively as labors allocation in Kertaharja village were 210.05 MDW/ha/year. The potency of labor absorption level on agriculture sectors in Ciamis district defined as high, which was more than 75 percent. In relation to labor allocation, generally, ages of farmers had positive correlation while the land width had negative ones.

This paper uses a quasi-experimental study of a major bridge construction in Bangladesh to understand the effects of a large reduction in trade costs on the pattern of structural change and agricultural productivity. The paper develops a spatial general equilibrium model with a core and two hinterlands at the opposite sides separated by rivers, and allows for productivity gains through agglomeration in the agriculture and manufacturing sectors. The model yields insights different from the standard core-periphery and trade models: (i) the newly connected hinterland may experience higher population density and agricultural productivity despite significant de-industrialization; (ii) even with increased specialization in agriculture, the share of agricultural employment may decline when interregional trade requires local services (such as processing and trading); and (iii) the strongest effects on employment structure are felt not necessarily in the areas next to the bridge but in the areas that move out of autarky as a result of the bridge. The empirical estimation uses doubly robust estimators in a difference-in-difference design where the comparison hinterland comes from a region which was supposed to be connected to the core (capital city) by the proposed, but not yet constructed, Padma bridge. In the short run, there is significant labor reallocation from agriculture to services in the connected hinterland, but no perceptible effects on the employment share of manufacturing, population density, and night-lights. In the long run, the labor share of manufacturing declines in the treatment hinterland and increases in the core. However, there are significant positive effects on population density, night light luminosity, and agricultural yields in the treatment hinterland which contradict backwash effects of the bridge. The effects of the bridge on intersectoral labor allocation are spatially heterogeneous, with relatively weak effects in the areas close to the bridge.

While much research on China has focused on rural to urban migration and transitions of rural households away from agriculture, little is known about the changes within the rural agricultural sector. Yet, the agricultural sector continues to account for a large share of employment. We study the determinants of transitions from subsistence farming into either formal agricultural employment or agricultural self-employment. We pay particular attention to the role of capital endowments. We find that financial capital plays a relatively limited role, compared to natural, human, social and political capital.

This paper extends Romer's (1990) endogenous growth model by incorporating the heterogeneity of skills among workers. Based on this heterogeneous characteristic, our model has an endogenous labor allocation mechanism determined by the shape of the skill distribution of the workers. Workers are divided between the research and production sectors according to the demand and supply conditions of the economy for their specific skills. We also show that the long-run growth rate of the economy can be characterized by the allocation mechanism.

The research aims to analyze the management of cocoa agroforestry, labor allocation and household income of farmers in cocoa agroforestry management activities as well as the contribution of agroforestry to household income of cocoa farmers in the Anyar District Serang Regency Banten Province. The method used in this research is a survey using two stage cluster sampling method. Samples taken are as many as 60 farmer of 400 populations scattered from cocoa agroforestry farmers in the Anyar District Serang Regency Banten Province. The results showed that the management of cocoa agroforestry in the Anyar District during year 1 to year 7 consists of 5 stages, namely : land clearing, planting, maintenance, harvesting and post-harvest. Average allocation of labor in the cocoa agroforestry management activities in the Anyar District is at 440,18 HOK/Ha/Year with the following composition : 1,21 HOK/Ha/Year in the planting stage, 132,5 HOK/Ha/Year in the maintenance stage, 145,22 HOK/Ha/Year in the harvesting stage and 161,25 HOK/Ha/year in the post-harvest stage. Average household income of cocoa agroforestry farmers in the Anyar District is Rp. 84.451.377/Year which includes income from cocoa agroforestry is Rp. 26.880.210/Year by contributing to the household income of farmers by 31,83%/Year and income from non-cocoa agroforestry is Rp. 57.571.167/Year by contributing to the household income of farmers by 68,17%/Year.

This study investigates the long-term trends of labor allocation in rural households of China from the late 1980s until the mid-2010s, and examines the determinants of their off-farm employment in 2002 and 2013 using the nationally representative household survey (CHIP). The estimated results indicate that working status of whether a person is employed showed the coefficients on age and education have an inverse-U-shaped relationship with employment probability for both years. The estimated results of the Tobit model of off-farm workdays as a percentage share of total workdays show that female labor was more strongly influenced by household characteristics and political networks than male labor in 2002, but no clear gender gaps were observed in 2013. This appears mainly due to the relative scarcity of off-farm employment in the early 2000s; therefore, women tended to take charge of domestic work such as child care and agricultural production. With the increase of off-farm work and the liberalization of grain marketing, the division of labor between genders has become less apparent.

This paper examines the role of changes in sectoral productivity gaps over time in accounting for growth realized by countries over the past few decades. To quantify the productivity impact of the sectoral gaps, a simple model of resource allocation is developed in which the gaps arise due to distortions in the form of asymmetrical taxes across sectors. The paper finds a limited role of changes in distortions over time in accounting for actual growth. Implied growth from changes in distortions accounts for less than 2.5 percent of actual growth for the median country. To check if the lower contribution of changes in distortions is because of unrealized gains suggested by high levels of present distortions, productivity gains are estimated when distortions across countries are reduced to the US levels. Barring a couple of cases, the gains in aggregate productivity are modest across the sample of countries.

This paper provides evidence on the impacts of agricultural productivity on employment growth and structural transformation of non-farm activities. To guide the empirical work, this paper develops a general equilibrium model that emphasizes distinctions among non-farm activities in terms of tradable-non-tradable and the formal-informal characteristics. The model shows that when a significant portion of village income is spent on town/urban goods, restricting empirical analysis to the village sample leads to underestimation of agriculture's role in employment growth and transformation of non-farm activities. Using rainfall as an instrument for agricultural productivity, empirical analysis finds a significant positive effect of agricultural productivity growth on growth of informal (small-scale) manufacturing and skilled services employment, mainly in education and health services. For formal employment, the effect of agricultural productivity growth on employment is found to be largest in the samples that include urban areas and rural towns compared with rural areas alone. Agricultural productivity growth is found to induce structural transformation within the services sector with employment in formal/skilled services growing at a faster pace than that of low skilled services.

In this paper, the author seeks to sharpen the understanding of the economic channels through which sector-specific distortions affect aggregate outcomes. Thea author pay special attention on how cross-sector misallocation might arrive as a result of these distortions, and clarify how models of resource misallocation across heterogeneous firms differ from models of resource misallocation across sectors. The author present facts that suggest the presence of such distortions in Mexico, a noteworthy developing country. The paper highlights the importance of understanding the origin and nature of sector-specific distortions for policy design.

Although the effects of insecurity are believed to be important, these have never been directly measured. Previous estimates of the costs of conflict have only captured the joint effect of violence and insecurity. The distinction is important for understanding the origins of the costs and for policy design. Spatially disaggregated measures of insecurity are created based on the spatial-temporal variation in the placement of violence. These are used to generate the first estimates of the relative causal contributions of the risk and experience of violence. The article also provides the first micro-data based counterpart to the cross-country literature on the costs of conflict.

This paper analyzes the effects of land market restrictions on structural change from agriculture to non-farm in a rural economy. This paper develops a theoretical model that focuses on higher migration costs due to restrictions on alienability, and identifies the possibility of a reverse structural change where the share of nonagricultural employment declines. The reverse structural change can occur under plausible conditions: if demand for the non-agricultural good is income-inelastic (assuming the non-farm good is non-tradable), or non-agriculture is less labor intensive relative to agriculture (assuming the non-farm good is tradable). For identification, this paper exploits a natural experiment in Sri Lanka where historical malaria played a unique role in land policy. The empirical evidence indicates significant adverse effects of land restrictions on manufacturing and services employment, rural wages, and per capita household consumption. The evidence on the disaggregated occupational choices suggests that land restrictions increase wage employment in agriculture, but reduce it in manufacturing and services, with no perceptible effects on self-employment in non-agriculture. The results are consistent with the migration costs model, but contradict two widely discussed alternative mechanisms: collateral effect and property rights insecurity. This paper also provides direct evidence in favor of the migration costs mechanism.

This paper analyzes the effects of land market restrictions on the rural labor market outcomes for women. The existing literature emphasizes two mechanisms through which land restrictions can affect the economic outcomes: the collateral value of land, and (in) security of property rights. Analysis of this paper focuses on an alternative mechanism where land restrictions increase costs of migration out of villages. The testable prediction of collateral effect is that both wages and labor force participation move in the same direction, and insecurity of property rights reduces labor force participation and increases wages. In contrast, if land restrictions work primarily through higher migration costs, labor force participation increases, while wages decline. For identification, this paper exploits a natural experiment in Sri Lanka where historical malaria played a unique role in land policy. This paper provides robust evidence of a positive effect of land restrictions on womens labor force participation, but a negative effect on female wages. The empirical results thus contradict a collateral or insecure property rights effect, but support migration costs as the primary mechanism.

This paper establishes that the rise in the income share of information and communication technology accounts for half of the decline in labor income share in the United States. This decline can be decomposed into a sharp decline in the income share of “routine” labor—which is relatively more prone to automation—and a milder rise in the non-routine share. Quantitatively, this decomposition suggests large effects of information and communication technology on the income distribution within labor, but only moderate effects on the distribution of income between capital and labor. A production structure calibrated to match these trends suggests modest aggregate welfare gains from automation.

This paper examines whether labor productivity converged across Peru’s regions (“departments”) during 2002-12. Given the large differences in labor productivity across the regions of Peru, such convergence has the potential to raise aggregate productivity and incomes, and also reduce regional inequalities. The paper finds that labor productivity in the secondary sector (especially manufacturing) and the mining sector has converged across Peruvian departments. The paper does not find robust evidence for labor productivity convergence in agriculture and services. These patterns are consistent with recent cross-country evidence and with the hypothesis that productivity convergence is more likely in sectors with greater scope for market integration, because of the effects of competition and knowledge flows. The convergence in labor productivity within manufacturing and mining has been sufficient to lead to convergence in aggregate labor productivity across departments. But because services and agriculture continue to employ the majority of workers in Peru, aggregate convergence is slower than that within manufacturing. The paper also finds that poverty rates are not converging across departments. The limited impact of labor productivity convergence on poverty could be tied to the facts that not all sectors are experiencing productivity convergence, poorer people are employed in sectors where convergence has been slower (such as agriculture), and there is very little labor reallocation toward converging sectors (such as manufacturing).

The contribution of women to labor in African agriculture is regularly quoted in the range of 60 to 80 percent. Using individual-disaggregated, plot-level labor input data from nationally representative household surveys across six Sub-Saharan African countries, this study estimates the average female labor share in crop production at 40 percent. It is slightly above 50 percent in Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda, and substantially lower in Nigeria (37 percent), Ethiopia (29 percent), and Niger (24 percent). There are no systematic differences across crops and activities, but female labor shares tend to be higher in households where women own a larger share of the land and when they are more educated. Controlling for the gender and knowledge profile of the respondents does not meaningfully change the predicted female labor shares. The findings question prevailing assertions regarding substantial gains in aggregate crop output as a result of increasing female agricultural productivity.

Drawing on a new set of nationally representative, internationally comparable household surveys, this paper provides an overview of key features of structural transformation—labor allocation and labor productivity—in four African economies. New, micro-based measures of sector labor allocation and cross-sector productivity differentials describe the incentives households face when allocating their labor. These measures are similar to national accounts-based measures that are typically used to characterize structural changes in African economies. However, because agricultural workers supply far fewer hours of labor per year than do workers in other sectors, productivity gaps disappear almost entirely when expressed on a per-hour basis. What look like large productivity gaps in national accounts data could really be employment gaps, calling into question the prospective gains that laborers can achieve through structural transformation. These employment gaps, along with the strong linkages observed between rural non-farm activities and primary agricultural production, highlight agricultures continued relevance to structural change in Sub-Saharan Africa.

This paper empirically studies the dynamics of labor market adjustment following the Brazilian trade reform of the 1990s. The paper uses variation in industry-specific tariff cuts interacted with initial regional industry mix to measure trade-induced local labor demand shocks and examines regional and individual labor market responses to those one-time shocks over two decades. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the analysis does not find that the impact of local shocks is dissipated over time through wage-equalizing migration. Instead, it finds steadily growing effects of local shocks on regional formal sector wages and employment for 20 years. This finding can be rationalized in a simple equilibrium model with two complementary factors of production, labor and industry-specific factors such as capital, that adjust slowly and imperfectly to shocks. Next, the paper documents rich margins of adjustment induced by the trade reform at the regional and individual levels. Workers initially employed in harder hit regions face continuously deteriorating formal labor market outcomes relative to workers employed in less affected regions, and this gap persists even 20 years after the beginning of trade liberalization. Negative local trade shocks induce workers to shift out of the formal tradable sector and into the formal nontradable sector. Non-employment strongly increases in harder hit regions in the medium run, but in the longer run, non-employed workers eventually find re-employment in the informal sector. Working age population does not react to these local shocks, but formal sector net migration does, consistent with the relative decline of the formal sector and growth of the informal sector in adversely affected regions.

This article uses survey data from Ecuador to examine the effects of women's employment on the allocation of paid and unpaid labor within the household. The reader compares a region with high demand for female labor with a similar region in which demand for female labor is low. The comparison suggests that market labor opportunities for women have no effect on women's total time in labor but increase men's time in unpaid labor. The increase in men's time in unpaid work reflects women's increased bargaining power in the home.

This thesis defense presentation explores the gendered dimensions of conservation agriculture through the following research questions

Many key development outcomes depend on women s ability to negotiate favorable intrahousehold allocations of resources. Yet it has been difficult to clearly identify which policies can increase women's bargaining power and result in better outcomes. This paper reviews both the analytical frameworks and the empirical evidence on the importance of women's bargaining power. It argues that there is sufficient evidence from rigorous studies to conclude that women's bargaining power does affect outcomes. But in many specific instances, the quantitative evidence cannot rigorously identify causality. In these cases, a combination of quantitative and qualitative evidence may suggest policy levers. Taken together, there are sufficient data in place to support a greatly expanded focus on intrahousehold outcomes and bargaining power. Additional data at the individual level will allow for further and more detailed research. A growing literature supports the current conventional wisdom -- namely, that the patterns of evidence suggest that women s education, incomes, and assets all are important aspects of women s bargaining power.

Recent efforts by the Government of Lesotho, non-government organizations (NGOs), and international attention have focused on developing conservation agriculture (CA) practices adapted to the cultural, economic, and agro-ecological conditions. In particular, understanding the influence of the introduction of CA technologies on soil erosion, yields, labor allocation and gender roles is of critical importance for developing sustainable agriculture technologies. This research is a collaborative effort between The National University of Lesotho and The University of Tennessee. LTRA-9 (Developing sustainable CAPS for smallholder farmers in Southern Africa)

Although natural selection in ants acts most strongly at the colony, or superorganismal level, foraging patterns have rarely been studied at that level, focusing instead on the behavior of individual foragers or groups of foragers. The experiments and observations in this paper reveal in broad strokes how colonies of the fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), allocate their available labor to foraging, how they disperse that force within their territory, and how this force changes with colony size, season and worker age. Territory area is positively related to colony size and the number of foragers, more so during the spring than fall. Changes of colony size and territory area are driven by seasonal variation of sexual and worker production, which in turn drive seasonal variation of worker age-distribution. During spring sexual production, colonies shrink because worker production falls below replacement. This loss is proportional to colony size, causing forager density in the spring to be negatively related to colony and territory size. In the fall, colonies emphasize worker production, bringing colony size back up. However, because smaller colonies curtailed spring worker production less than larger ones, their fall forager populations are proportionally greater, causing them to gain territory at the expense of large colonies. Much variation of territory area remains unexplained and can probably be attributed to pressure from neighboring colonies. Boundaries between territories are characterized by “no ants' zones” mostly devoid of fire ants. The forager population can be divided into a younger group of recruitable workers that wait for scouts to activate them to help retrieve large food finds. About one-third of the recruits wait near openings in the foraging tunnels that underlie the entire territory, while two-thirds wait in the nest. Recruitment to food is initially very rapid and local from the foraging tunnels, while sustained recruitment gradually involves the recruits waiting in the nest. As recruits age, they become scouts searching for food on the surface, and die about two weeks later. Foraging tunnels decrease in cross-sectional area with distance from the nest, in keeping with the gradual bleeding off of workers to the surface with distance. Foragers lack route-faithfulness, and having been marked and released at one point within the territory, they can be recaptured at any other point a day later. The size of the territory actually occupied may be limited during dry weather, resulting in very large no-ants' zones.

Capitalizing on the most recent estimates of agricultural price distortions in China and in other countries, this paper assesses the economic and poverty impact of global and domestic trade reform in China. It also examines the interplay between the trade reforms and factor market reforms aimed at improving the allocation of labor within the Chinese economy. The results suggest that trade reforms in the rest of the world, land reform and hukou reform all serve to reduce poverty, while unilateral trade reforms result in a small poverty increase. Agricultural distortions are important factors in determining the distributional and poverty effects of trade reform packages, although their impacts on aggregate trade and welfare appear to be small. A comprehensive reform package which bundles the reforms in commodity and factor markets together may benefit all broad household groups in China.

Metadata only record For this article, Susanne Steinmann researches the environmental impact created by the shift of shepherding responsibilities from men to women in Eastern Morocco brought about by conservation policies established to prevent desertification of rangeland. Eastern Morocco was selected as the study area because like other areas in the region it has been experiencing deterioration of rangeland from nomadic settlement, has endured multi-year droughts, is home to the traditionally nomadic Beni Guil tribe and has been effected by the Moroccan Government's economic development and environmental conservation program aimed at re-mobilizing previously settled nomadic tribes. Data was gathered by Steinmann from twenty randomly chosen mobile Beni Guil families. The research indicates that the government-sponsored conservation policies intended to reverse the trend towards settling and return tribes to nomadism are forcing men to be absent from their homes for frequent trips to collect subsidized grain, which in turn causes women and children to be responsible for the shepherding of livestock. Women of the Beni Guil tribe, like in other tribes throughout the region, conform to cultural ideals about the seclusion of women and remain close to their tent sites. Staying close to the tent site while herding livestock causes severe degradation of vegetation in close proximity to the camp. The Moroccan Government has not fully taken into account the cultural implications of its conservation polices and the environmental impacts. The de-vegetation around the mobile camp sites demonstrates the need for greater analysis of the allocation of work based on gender and how it converges with livestock care and conservation policies at the local level.

Metadata only record We examine the determinants of activity choice affecting forest use among low-income SysCoor-5 (Policy and Governance)

Metadata only record This paper investigates the relationship of agricultural employment and land use choices in upland tropical forest margins. The author combines models of lowland agricultural production and upland farm labor allocation to study the influence of labor productivity, agricultural wages, and economic returns on deforestation rates. Data collected from Philippine farms shows that adoption of lowland irrigation increased labor demand, providing employment to upland residents, and thus causing a small (but statistically significant) reduction in deforestation rates.