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International audience; In the last decade, the influence of microbial symbionts on ecological and physiological traits of their hosts has been increasingly recognized. However, most of these effects have been revealed under laboratory conditions, which oversimplifies the complexity of the factors involved in the dynamics of symbiotic associations in nature. The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum , forms a complex of plant-adapted biotypes, which strongly differ in the prevalence of their facultative endosymbionts. Some of the facultative endosymbionts of A. pisum have been shown to confer protection against natural enemies, among which Hamiltonella defensa is known to protect its host from parasitoid wasps. Here, we tested under natural conditions whether the endosymbiont communities of different A. pisum biotypes had a protective effect on their hosts and whether endosymbiotic associations and parasitoid communities associated with the pea aphid complex were linked. A space-time monitoring of symbiotic associations, parasitoid pressure and parasitoid communities was carried out in three A. pisum biotypes respectively specialized on Medicago sativa (alfalfa), Pisum sativum (pea), and Trifolium sp. (clover) throughout the whole cropping season. While symbiotic associations, and to a lesser extent, parasitoid communities were stable over time and structured mainly by the A. pisum biotypes, the parasitoid pressure strongly varied during the season and differed among the three biotypes. This suggests a limited influence of parasitoid pressure on the dynamics of facultative endosymbionts at a seasonal scale. However, we found a positive correlation between the α and β diversities of the endosymbiont and parasitoid communities, indicating interactions between these two guilds. Also, we revealed a negative correlation between the prevalence of H. defensa and Fukatsuia symbiotica in co-infection and the intensity of parasitoid pressure in the alfalfa biotype, confirming in field conditions the protective effect of this symbiotic combination.

Life-history traits within ecological communities can be influenced by regional environmental conditions (external filters) and community-wide density-dependent processes (internal filters). While traits in a regional context may converge to a narrow range of values because of environmental filtering, species belonging to a guild may present contrasting traits as a means of niche differentiation, allowing coexistence whilst exploiting the same resources. To disentangle the role of external and internal filters on phenotypic diversity within ecological communities, we examined the patterns of life-history trait variation within a guild of insect parasitoids during two successive years across three contrasted regions in relation to several ecological factors. By combining a mean-field approach and an analysis of phenotypic variance across organizational levels (from individual to guild), we showed that the patterns of life-history trait variation across regions are consistent with local adaptation or adaptive phenotypic plasticity while the patterns of phenotypic variation within regions suggested how coexistence modulates life-history traits expression through niche differentiation. Within a given region, phenotypic pattern of parasitoid life-history traits may also arise from bottom-up effects of trophic webs insect host species could also control parasitoid life-history traits in nature. Our results also showed that parasitoid life-history traits presented contrasting variation patterns according to the sampling year, suggesting temporal variations in evolutionary and ecological dynamics of parasitoid species. The application of such trait-based studies to insect parasitoids has the potential to provide further insight on how agricultural environments contribute to differential diversification among natural enemies guilds, highlighting the main role of agricultural landscape management for organisms'responses. A plain language summary is available for this article. © 2017 The Authors. Functional Ecology © 2017 British Ecological Society

Summary Reproductive success for species in which offspring are confined to a distinct resource depends on the ability of parents to locate reproductive sites as well as the quality of these sites in terms of the food source, risk of predation and competition. To locate hosts for their offspring, parasitic wasps, or parasitoids, use plant odour blends induced by herbivore feeding. These herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) may also be used by competitors and predators. Therefore, offspring of parasitoids that respond to the most conspicuous odours may find themselves more frequently involved in competition or predation risk. We studied cultivars of Brassica oleracea that are known to differ in volatile production that underlies attractiveness to parasitoids and asked whether variation in this parameter is associated with a heterogeneous distribution of intrinsic competition among parasitoid larvae and predation risk by hyperparasitoids that parasitize parasitoid larvae or pupae. We inoculated field-grown plants with Pieris caterpillars and, thereafter, exposed them to the natural parasitoid community. We measured the frequency of multiple incidences of parasitism in these herbivores. Cocoons of the parasitoids were collected to identify the degree of hyperparasitism associated with different Brassica cultivars. Pieris caterpillars on cultivars that were more attractive to Cotesia parasitoids were more commonly parasitized by several females of the same (superparasitism) or different wasp species (multiparasitism) than caterpillars on less attractive plants. Cocoons of parasitoids on attractive plants also more frequently produced hyperparasitoids. Our results show that there is heterogeneity in intrinsic competition and risk of hyperparasitism for parasitoids on different cabbage cultivars and that this heterogeneity is likely generated by variation in attraction of parasitoids to HIPVs of these cultivars. We conclude that parasitoids may find themselves between a rock and a hard place as cues for host presence may also predict high levels of competition and risk of predation. We speculate that this affects selection on parasitoid responses to plant odours and enhances selection on traits that make wasps better intrinsic or extrinsic competitors as well as selection for adaptive traits – such as crypsis – that protect them against hyperparasitoids.

Multiparasitism (females of multiple species parasitizing the same host) is a ubiquitous phenomenon in parasitoids, yet the role of within-host competition has been mostly ignored in multiparasitoid-host models. Here we study the effect of varying the degree of competition at different life stages: competition over oviposition sites (between-adult competition) and larval competition over resources within the host (within-host competition). We adapt a Nicholson-Bailey model to allow for varying levels of between-adult competition (varying the overlap in species distributions) and within-host competition (varying the number of offspring that can successfully emerge from a host). Surprisingly, while stronger between-adult competition reduces coexistence, stronger within-host competition promotes it. Asymmetric between-adult competition (a fecundity difference between the two species) reduces coexistence when compared to symmetric competition; this can be counteracted by asymmetric within-host competition (within-host competitive advantage of the lower-fecundity species), but only when within-host competition is strong and the correlation between the parasitoids' distributions is intermediate. We discuss our results in the context of the interaction between two parasitoid species, Nasonia vitripennis and Nasonia giraulti, which have strongly correlated distributions and high levels of multiparasitism in the field. We conclude that either low or asymmetric within-host competition is unlikely to explain their coexistence.

The multicolored Asian lady beetle, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), is an invasive species in North America that has a low susceptibility to indigenous natural enemies. We investigated the role of the immune system of H. axyridis in its resistance to North American population of the hymenopteran parasitoid Dinocampus coccinellae Schrank. An ultrastructural study of adult H. axyridis hemocytes under electron and light microscopy identified five different cellular types: plasmatocytes, granular hemocytes I, granular hemocytes II, oenocytoids, and spherule cells. Only granular hemocytes II and plasmatocytes are involved in the nodulation of bacteria and encapsulation of parasitoid eggs. Injection of Sephadex beads in H. axyridis adults induces an innate immune response and results in complete encapsulation of ≈28% of the beads after 24 h and 81% after 5 d. When H. axyridis was parasitized by D. coccinellae, we observed a decrease in the encapsulation response, and this pattern was inversely related to the number of parasitoid eggs in the H. axyridis hemolymph. The injection of polydnaviruses by D. coccinellae females and the multiple target hypotheses could both explain the encapsulation rate decreasing with increasing parasitoid egg load. Our results suggest that the immune system of H. axyridis could favor its escape from internal developing natural enemies indigenous to North America.

The performance of natural enemies, such as parasitoid wasps, is affected by differences in the quality of the host’s diet, frequently mediated by species or population-related differences in plant allelochemistry. Here, we compared survival, development time, and body mass in a generalist herbivore, the cabbage moth, Mamestra brassicae, and its solitary endoparasitoid, Microplitis mediator, when reared on two cultivated (CYR and STH) and three wild (KIM, OH, and WIN) populations of cabbage, Brassica oleracea. Plants either were undamaged or induced by feeding of larvae of the cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae. Development and biomass of M. brassicae and Mi. mediator were similar on both cultivated and one wild cabbage population (KIM), intermediate on the OH population, and significantly lower on the WIN population. Moreover, development was prolonged and biomass was reduced on herbivore-induced plants. However, only the survival of parasitized hosts (and not that of healthy larvae) was affected by induction. Analysis of glucosinolates in leaves of the cabbages revealed higher levels in the wild populations than cultivars, with the highest concentrations in WIN plants. Multivariate statistics revealed a negative correlation between insect performance and total levels of glucosinolates (GS) and levels of 3-butenyl GS. However, GS chemistry could not explain the reduced performance on induced plants since only indole GS concentrations increased in response to herbivory, which did not affect insect performance based on multivariate statistics. This result suggests that, in addition to aliphatic GS, other non- GS chemicals are responsible for the decline in insect performance, and that these chemicals affect the parasitoid more strongly than the host. Remarkably, when developing on WIN plants, the survival of Mi. mediator to adult eclosion was much higher than in its host, M. brassicae. This may be due to the fact that hosts parasitized by Mi. mediator pass through fewer instars, and host growth is arrested when they are only a fraction of the size of healthy caterpillars. Certain aspects of the biology and life-history of the host and parasitoid may determine their response to chemical challenges imposed by the food plant.

Summary 1Plant species employ several direct and indirect defence strategies to protect themselves against insect herbivores. Most studies, however, have focused on shoot-induced responses. Much less is known about interactions between below- and above-ground herbivores and how these may affect their respective parasitoids. 2Here, we quantify the impact of below-ground induced responses vs. that of above-ground induced responses in a feral Brassica on the performance of Pieris brassicae and its endoparasitoid Cotesia glomerata. Jasmonic acid (JA) was applied to induce the plants above- or below-ground. The glucosinolate, sugar and amino acid levels of the leaves were analysed. 3Pieris brassicae larvae grew significantly slower on shoot JA-induced (SJA) plants than on root JA-induced (RJA) and control plants, which were treated with acidic water. On RJA and control plants they showed similar developmental trajectories. Pupal masses, survival till eclosion and egg load, however, were similar on all plants. 4The development of C. glomerata larvae on SJA plants was significantly longer than that on RJA and control plants. In contrast, the parasitoid's pupal stage lasted longer in hosts feeding on control plants. The total developmental times eventually were similar in all groups. However, the masses of male and female C. glomerata adults that developed hosts on control and RJA plants were significantly larger than those from hosts on SJA plants. JA application increased total glucosinolate contents and decreased the sugars and total amino acids levels independent of whether JA was applied. However, the trajectories of herbivore-induced glucosinolate levels differed between RJA and SJA plants. 5These results show that the differential effects of above- and below-ground-induced responses on herbivores also affect higher trophic levels in a nonlinear fashion via differential changes in host plant quality. In particular, the indirect effects that below-ground herbivores have on the performance of above-ground parasitoids may exceed the direct effects of plant chemistry on herbivore performance. Consequently, above-ground and below-ground interactions mediated by induced plant responses have the potential to mediate insect community structure and function in complex ways.

V. Tello, L. Díaz, and M. Sánchez. 2013. Side effects of the natural pesticide Spinosad (GF-120 Formulation) on Eretmocerus paulistus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a parasitoid of the whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), under laboratory conditions. Cien. Inv. Agr. 40(2):407-417. The side effects of the insecticide GF-120 NF 0.02 Naturalyte CB® were evaluated on adults of Eretmocerus paulistus Hempel, a parasitoid of Aleurothrixus floccosus (Maskell) in citrus orchards of northern Chile. LC50 and LC90 were determined by applying the insecticide using a Potter tower in decreasing doses from 0.96 to 0.1 mg a.i. L-1 (corresponding to 1% to 0.1% of the recommended dose, respectively). After 24 h of exposure, the results were fitted to a probit model, and the LC50 and LC90 were estimated at 0.21 and 0.79 mg a.i. L-1, respectively. In feeding tests and evaluation of the toxic effect of dry residues of GF-120, it was determined that a high percentage of mortality (100%) was obtained using a combination of 24.0 mg a.i. L-1 x residues at 1 hour drying time. Residues at 96 h (4 days) drying time with concentrations of 38.4 or 24.0 mg a.i. L-1 caused mortalities over 60%. According to the classification of the IOBC (International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants) the manufacturer's recommended concentration of 96 mg a.i. L-1 was level 4, which is harmful (> 99%), as GF-120 concentrations can range from 0.77 to 72 mg a.i. L-1. The GF-120 residues applied on inert surfaces were harmful to E. paulistus with a high mortality rate under laboratory conditions. Field studies are needed to validate these results by evaluating parasitoid populations in insecticide-treated and untreated areas. V. Tello, L. Días y M. Sánchez. 2013. Side effects of natural pesticide spinosad (GF-120 formulation) on Eretmocerus paulistus parasitoid of the whitefly Aleurothrixus floccosus under laboratory conditions. Cien. Inv. Agr. 40(2): 407-417. Se evaluó el efecto colateral del insecticida GF-120 NF Naturalyte 0.02 CB® sobre adultos de Eretmocerus paulistus, parasitoide de Aleurothrixus floccosus en cítricos en el norte de Chile. Se determinó la CL50 y CL90, aplicando el insecticida mediante torre Potter, en dosis decreciente desde 0,96 hasta 0,1 mg a.i. L-1 (correspondientes al 1% y al 0,1% de la dosis recomendada, respectivamente). Los resultados correspondientes a las 24 h se ajustaron a un modelo Probit y se estimaron en 0,21 y 0,79 mg i.a. L-1 (CL50 y CL90, respectivamente). En ensayos de alimentación y evaluación del efecto tóxico de residuos secos de GF-120, se determinó que la mayor mortalidad (100%) se obtuvo con una combinación de 24,0 mg i.a. L-1 X residuos de 1 hora. Residuos de 96 h (4 días), con concentraciones de 38,4 ó 24,0 mg i.a. L-1, produjeron mortalidades superiores al 60%. De acuerdo a la clasificación de la IOBC (International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants), la concentración recomendada por fabricante de 96 mg i.a. L-1 fue de nivel 4 (perjudicial, >99%), lo mismo ocurrió con concentraciones de GF-120 que variaron entre 0,77 a 72 mg i.a. L-1. Los residuos de GF-120, aplicados sobre superficies inertes fueron dañino para E. paulistus, con altas tasa de mortalidad bajo condiciones de laboratorio. Se requieren estudios de campo para validar estos resultados evaluando poblaciones del parasitoide en áreas tratadas y no tratadas con este insecticida.

Females of the larval parasitoid of Drosophila, Asobara citri, from sub-Saharan Africa, defend patches with hosts by fighting and chasing conspecific females upon encounter. Females of the closely related, palearctic species Asobara tabida do not defend patches and often search simultaneously in the same patch. The effect of patch defence by A. citri females on their distribution in a multi-patch environment was investigated, and their distributions were compared with those of A. tabida. For both species 20 females were released from two release-points in replicate experiments. Females of A. citri quickly reached a regular distribution across 16 patches, with a small variance/mean ratio per patch. Conversely, A. tabida females initially showed a clumped distribution, and after gradual dispersion, a more Poisson-like distribution across patches resulted (variance/mean ratio was closer to 1 and higher than for A. citri). The dispersion of A. tabida was most probably an effect of exploitation: these parasitoids increasingly made shorter visits to already exploited patches. We briefly discuss hypotheses on the adaptive significance of patch defence behaviour or its absence in the light of differences in the natural history of both parasitoid species, notably the spatial distribution of their hosts.

During their larval development, endoparasitoids are known to dispose of host resources in several different ways. Some parasitoid wasps consume most or all tissues of the host, whereas others consume a small fraction of host resources and either ensure that the host moves away from the pupation site or allow the host to remain close to the parasitoid cocoon(s). Using a single host species, Mythimna separata Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), this study compares the success of the two pupation strategies in the solitary parasitoids Microplitis sp. and Meteorus pulchricornis Wesmael (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) against attack from a secondary hyperparasitoid, Gelis agilis F. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). The caudal appendages of M. separata caterpillars parasitized by Microplitis sp. remain physically attached to parasitoid cocoons and the caterpillars behave aggressively when disturbed. However, after Me. pulchricornis larvae emerge from caterpillars of their host, M. separata, the parasitoid larvae pupate in cocoons that are suspended by a single thick thread that hangs 1–2 cm from under a leaf. In choice tests conducted in petri dishes, significantly fewer cocoons of Microplitis sp. attended by caterpillars than unattended cocoons were hyperparasitized by G. agilis. By contrast, Me. pulchricornis cocoons that were hanging from corn, Zea mays L., plants were hyperparasitized as frequently as those which were attached to leaves. We discuss the potentially different selection pressures generated among natural enemies such as predators and hyperparasitoids in determining optimal pupal defense strategies in primary parasitoids.

In natural systems, pre-adult stages of some insect herbivores are known to be attacked by several species of parasitoids. Under certain conditions, hosts may be simultaneously parasitised by more than one parasitoid species (= multiparasitism), even though only one parasitoid species can successfully develop in an individual host. Here, we compared development, survival, and intrinsic competitive interactions amongst three species of solitary larval endoparasitoids, Campoletis sonorensis (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), Microplitis demolitor Wilkinson, and Microplitis croceipes (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), in singly parasitised and multiparasitised hosts. The three species differed in certain traits, such as in host usage strategies and adult body size. Campoletis sonorensis and M. demolitor survived equally well to eclosion in two host species that differed profoundly in size, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) and the larger Heliothis virescens (Fabricius) (both Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Egg-to-adult development time in C. sonorensis and M. demolitor also differed in the two hosts. Moreover, adult body mass in C. sonorensis (and not M. demolitor) was greater when developing in H. virescens larvae. We then monitored the outcome of competitive interactions in host larvae that were parasitised by one parasitoid species and subsequently multiparasitised by another species at various time intervals (0, 6, 24, and 48 h) after the initial parasitism. These experiments revealed that M. croceipes was generally a superior competitor to the other two species, whereas M. demolitor was the poorest competitor, with C. sonorensis being intermediate in this capacity. However, competition sometimes incurred fitness costs in M. croceipes and C. sonorensis, with longer development time and/or smaller adult mass observed in surviving wasps emerging from multiparasitised hosts. Our results suggest that rapid growth and large size relative to competitors of a similar age may be beneficial in aggressive intrinsic competition.

1. Changing plant composition in a community can have profound consequences for herbivore and parasitoid population dynamics. To understand such effects, studies are needed that unravel the underlying behavioural decisions determining the responses of parasitoids to complex habitats. 2. The searching behaviour of the parasitoid Diadegma semiclausum was followed in environments with different plant species composition. In the middle of these environments, two Brassica oleracea plants infested by the host Plutella xylostella were placed. The control set-up contained B. oleracea plants only. In the more complex set-ups, B. oleracea plants were interspersed by either Sinapis alba or Hordeum vulgare. 3. Parasitoids did not find the first host-infested plant with the same speed in the different environments. Sinapis alba plants were preferentially searched by parasitoids, resulting in fewer initial host encounters, possibly creating a dynamic enemy-free space for the host on adjacent B. oleracea plants. In set-ups with H. vulgare, also, fewer initial host encounters were found, but in this case plant structure was more likely than infochemicals to interfere with the searching behaviour of parasitoids. 4. On discovering a host-infested plant, parasitoids located the second host-infested plant with equal speed, demonstrating the effect of experience on time allocation. Further encounters with host-infested plants that had already been visited decreased residence times and increased the tendency to leave the environment. 5. Due to the intensive search of S. alba plants, hosts were encountered at lower rates here than in the other set-ups. However, because parasitoids left the set-up with S. alba last, the same number of hosts were encountered as in the other treatments. 6. Plant composition of a community influences the distribution of parasitoid attacks via its effects on arrival and leaving tendencies. Foraging experiences can reduce or increase the importance of enemy-free space for hosts on less attractive plants.

It is widely reported that plants emit volatile compounds when they are attacked by herbivorous insects, which may be used by parasitoids and predators to locate their host or prey. The study of herbivore-induced plant volatiles and their role in mediating interactions between plants, herbivores and their natural enemies have been primarily based on aboveground systems, generally ignoring the potential interactions between above and belowground infochemical- and food webs. This study examines whether herbivory by Delia radicum feeding on roots of Brassica nigra (black mustard) affects the behaviour of Cotesia glomerata, a parasitoid of the leaf herbivore Pieris brassicae, mediated by changes in plant volatiles. In a semi-field experiment with root-damaged and root-undamaged plants C. glomerata prefers to oviposit in hosts feeding on root-undamaged plants. In addition, in a flight-cage experiment the parasitoid also prefers to search for hosts on plants without root herbivores. Plants exposed to root herbivory were shown to emit a volatile blend characterized by high levels of specific sulphur volatile compounds, which are reported to be highly toxic for insects, combined with low levels of several compounds, i.e. beta-farnesene, reported to act as attractants for herbivorous and carnivorous insects. Our results provide evidence that the foraging behaviour of a parasitoid of an aboveground herbivore can be influenced by belowground herbivores through changes in the plant volatile blend. Such indirect interactions may have profound consequences for the evolution of host selection behaviour in parasitoids, and may play an important role in the structuring and functioning of communities.

A female parasitoid searching for hosts in a patch experiences a diminishing encounter rate with unparasitized and thus suitable hosts. To use the available time most efficiently, it constantly has to decide whether to stay in the patch and continue to search for hosts or to search for and travel to another patch in the habitat. Several informational cues can be used to optimize the searching success. Theoretically, encounters with unparasitized hosts should lead to a prolonged search in a given patch if hosts are distributed contagiously. The results of empirical studies strongly support this hypothesis. However, it has, to date, not been investigated theoretically whether encounters with already parasitized hosts (which usually entail time costs) provide a parasitoid with valuable information for the optimization of its search in depletable patches, although the empirical studies concerning this question so far have produced ambiguous results. Building on recent advances in Bayesian foraging strategies, we approached this problem by modeling a priori searching strategies (which differ in the amount of information considered) and then testing them in computer simulations. By comparing the strategies, we were able to determine whether and how encounters with already parasitized hosts can yield information that can be used to enhance a parasitoid's searching success.

Los crisomélidos del grupo de los Diabroticites incluyen algunas de las especies plagas más importantes del continente americano. Los métodos químicos y de manejo utilizados tradicionalmente han sido: rotación de cultivos para evitar la reinfección de cultivos hospederos, sobre todo en las especies que presentan diapausa embrional; aspersiones de insecticidas para la eliminación de adultos; y principalmente dosis masivas de insecticidas de suelo incluidas en el laboreo del suelo para controlar las larvas. Pero, las limitaciones o prohibiciones en el uso de algunos insecticidas, resistencia a estos, y modificaciones en el comportamiento de oviposición en algunas de estas especies, ponen en jaque la producción de algunos de los cultivos clave en el continente. Esto ha estimulado el estudio de métodos de control y manejo alternativos para las especies plagas. Entre éstos, el control biológico y el uso de otros métodos de control alternativos se presentan como una de las opciones más atractivas. Para ello, sin embargo, se precisa tener un amplio conocimiento de la biología del grupo y de las redes tróficas en las que está inmerso. En este trabajo se establece que la gama de hospederos larvales y adulto de las Diabroticites de América del Sur templada y subtropical varía según el género, y según el grupo dentro de cada uno de ellos. En el grupo fucata de las Diabrotica hubo una aparente preferencia por las cucurbitáceas como alimento en adultos, seguido de yuyo colorado (Amaranthus quitensis Kunth), girasol (Helianthus annuus L.), y alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). En cambio, las preferencias de hospederos de oviposición y larvales fueron mayormente halladas en fabáceas y maíz. El grupo virgifera de Diabrotica prefirió el maíz como alimento tanto adulto como larval, y para oviposición. Las Acalymma, estaban asociadas en todos los aspectos a las Cucurbitaceae. Los resultados indican que las especies sudamericanas son en general multivoltinas y carecen de diapausa embrional y/o diapausa reproductiva obligada. Las especies neotropicales de parasitoides de Diabrotica, Celatoria bosqi Blanchard, Celatoria compressa Wulp (Diptera: Tachinidae), y Centistes gasseni Shaw (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), han aparecido con infestaciones naturales comparativamente altas y regulares. Basándonos sobre los elementos climáticos conocidos de las distribuciones de C. bosqi y C. gasseni, compusimos mapas de sus distribuciones potenciales en América del Norte, la cual sería bastante limitada para C. gasseni, pero no así para C. bosqi, que cubriría toda el área afectada por las especies plaga, tanto en América del Sur como del Norte. La distribución geográfica de las Diabroticites sudamericanas subtropicales y templadas también se discute en relación con su asociación con el manejo del paisaje, y sus hospederos, con mayor énfasis en las Cucurbitaceae. De ahí se discutirán las cucurbitacinas en la modulación de esta relación alimentaria. Las cucurbitacinas son triterpenoides oxigenados tetracíclicos, casi exclusivos de las Cucurbitaceae. Estos compuestos le sirven a la planta como defensa contra fitófagos debido a su toxicidad y extremado amargor. Sin embargo, para muchos Luperini, las cucurbitacinas provocan alimentación compulsiva, lo cual ha llevado a experimentar con la idea de reemplazar la aplicación masiva de insecticidas por cebos tóxicos, o aun combinados con patógenos. Se propone la hipótesis de que la asociación farmacofágica con esta familia de plantas podría estar sólo superficialmente relacionada con la biología básica del grupo, y se discute su utilidad en cebos tóxicos. También hemos utilizado extractos de varias plantas adsorbidas a telas de poliéster como métodos de colección y experimentación. Este conocimiento de las Diabroticites sudamericanas se discute en el contexto de las características reproductivas y ecológicas ya conocidas de las especies norteamericanas, con el objeto de discutir las posibilidades de manejar las especies plagas del género, con métodos alternativos al uso indiscriminado de insecticidas. The chrysomelids in the Diabroticites include some of the most important pest species of the American continent. The chemical and management techniques used to date to control them are: crop rotation to prevent re-infection of host crops, especially in the species that display an egg diapause; insecticide sprays against adults; and massive use of soil insecticides included with the sowing to control larvae. However, restrictions for the use of many of these insecticides, resistance phenomena to the same, and modifications in the oviposition behaviour of some of the main pest species, jeopardize the production of some of the staple crops in the continent. This has stimulated the search for alternative management methods. Among these, biological control and other alternative management methods appear to be the most attractive options. For this, however, we require a comprehensive knowledge of the biology of the group, as well as of the trophic webs it shares. In this work we determine the host ranges of the adults and larvae of the temperate and subtropical South American Diabroticites, according to genera, and to groups within genera. In the fucata group of Diabrotica there was an apparent preferente for cucurbits as adult food hosts, followed by pigweeds (Amaranthus quitensis Kunth), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). However, larval and oviposition host ranges were found mostly in the Fabaceae and maize. The virgifera group of Diabrotica preferred maize both as adult and larval host, and for oviposition as well. The species of Acalymma were in every aspect associated to the Cucurbitaceae. The results indicate that the South American Diabroticina are generally multivoltine and lack obligate reproductive diapause, or egg diapause. The Neotropical parasitoids of Diabrotica, Celatoria bosqi Blanchard, Celatoria compressa Wulp (Diptera: Tachinidae), and Centistes gasseni Shaw (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), have been known to appear in high and regular parasitism levels. Based on the known climatic factors related to the distributions of C. bosqi and C. gasseni, we composed potential distribution maps for North America. The predicted area proved to be quite limited for C. gasseni, but not so for C. bosqi, which could cover most of the area affected by the pest Diabrotica species, both in South and North America. The geographical distribution of Diabroticites in the South American temperate and subtropical climates is also discussed in relation to the landscape management, and the distribution of their hosts, particularly of the host cucurbits. We also discuss the role of cucurbitacins in the ancestral formation of this alimentary relationship. Cucurbitacins are tetracyclic oxygenated triterpenoids that are almost exclusive to the Cucurbitaceae. These compounds serve the plant as defense against plant feeders due to their toxicity and extreme bitterness. However, for many Luperini, cucurbitacins elicit compulsive feeding, which has lead to the idea of replacing massive insecticide applications by baits produced from these compounds with minor proportions of insecticides, or even pathogens. We propose that the pharmacophagous association of the Diabroticina with cucurbits could be only superficially associated with the basic biology of the group. We also discuss their utility in baits given a sexual polymorphism phenomenon in the attraction for cucurbitacins discussed in this work. We describe and discuss the results of the use of several cucurbit species extracts adsorbed to polyester cloths used as collection and experimentation methods. The accumulated knowledge on the South American Diabroticites presented in this work is discussed in context with the known reproductive and ecological traits of the North American species, in order to analyze the probabilities of managing the pest species with methods other than the indiscriminate use of insecticides. Fil: Cabrera Walsh, Guillermo. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales; Argentina.

1. Habitat complexity may stabilize interactions among species of different trophic levels by providing refuges to organisms of lower trophic levels. 2. Searching behaviour of the parasitoid, Diadegma semiclausum, was followed in different semifield set-ups, a low and high-density monoculture of Brassica oleracea and two intercrops, B. oleracea with Sinapis alba (also a member of the Brassicaceae) and B. oleracea with Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae). 3. When a low-density monocrop of B. oleracea was compared with a high-density monocrop, no differences were found in the ability of the female wasps to locate a host-infested plant, B. oleracea, infested with Plutella xylostella that was placed in the centre of the set-up. 4. The efficiency of the parasitoid to locate the host-infested plant was differentially affected by the species composition of the vegetation. Wasps entered the Sinapis-Brassica set-up faster, but took more time to find the host-infested plant than in the Hordeum-Brassica set-up. 5. The horizontal arrangement, i.e. by mixing S. alba or H. vulgare with, or placing them as rows between B. oleracea, did not affect host-finding efficiency. 6. Plant height did influence host finding. Wasps found the host-infested plants earlier in the set-up with short Sinapis plants compared with tall Sinapis plants. 7. Once the wasps had landed on the host-infested plant, the surrounding vegetation did not affect time needed to parasitize five consecutive hosts on the same infested plant, regardless of the composition or horizontal/vertical arrangement of the set-up. 8. Chemical and structural refuges in complex landscapes may play an important role in the persistence of this system through dampening oscillations of parasitoid and host populations. [KEYWORDS: crucifers ; Diadegma semiclausum ; Plutella xylostella ; proportional hazards model ; refuges]

This excel file contains all data from the study 'A link between communities of protective endosymbionts and parasitoids of the pea aphid revealed in unmanipulated agricultural systems' published in Frontiers in Ecology & Evolution, 2021

This excel file contains all data from the study 'A link between communities of protective endosymbionts and parasitoids of the pea aphid revealed in unmanipulated agricultural systems' published in Frontiers in Ecology & Evolution, 2021