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Background: Despite its global eradication in 1977, smallpox remains a concern owing to its potential as a biological agent, thereby prompting the ongoing development and utilization of its vaccine. Vaccination with the Vaccinia virus induces immunity against variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox; however, this immunity does not extend to viruses of different genera within the Poxviridae family. In this study, we aimed to assess the efficacy of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method utilizing Vaccinia virus and recombinant A27L antigen for detecting antibodies against smallpox. Methods. An analysis of the serum from 20 individuals pre- and post-vaccination with the CJ strain (CJ50300) revealed neutralizing antibodies, which were confirmed using the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). The ELISA method, validated with a PRNT50 cut-off value of >4, exhibited a sensitivity and specificity of >95% and was particularly reactive with the inactivated virus. Furthermore, adherence to the smallpox vaccination policy revealed significant differences in Orthopoxvirus antibody levels among 300 individuals of different age groups. These findings highlight the reliability and efficacy of the ELISA method in detecting post-vaccination antibodies and contribute significantly to diagnostic methods to prepare for potential smallpox resurgence and bioterrorism threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the elements and infection mechanisms of bioterrorism, assess North Korea's capability for biological warfare, and propose strategies for South Korea to counter potential bioterrorist threats from the North. The four critical elements of bioterrorism include the biological agent, the weaponization of the agent, the delivery system, and the impact of weather conditions on the attack. The infection routes for biological agents in bioterrorism include inhalation, ingestion, dermal exposure, and injection. The potential agents under development could include anthrax, smallpox, plague, and botulinum toxin, which might be deployed using missiles, artillery shells, or through covert operations. Proximity to North Korea significantly increases vulnerability to biological attacks. Possible methods include contaminating water supplies, food sources, or densely populated areas. Anthrax, smallpox, plague, and botulinum toxin could theoretically be delivered using packages attached to balloons. Minimizing the impact of a bioterrorism event requires strategy that includes four key actions: detection, decision-making, distribution, and dispensation. By integrating these steps, authorities can effectively manage and mitigate the effects of a bioterrorism event. Civilian doctors play a role in the early detection, diagnosis, treatment, and management of biological agents. Educating medical professionals is crucial for preparing against potential biological warfare or bioterrorism threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The peculiarities of the promotion of the narrative of Ukrainian biological weapons by Russian propaganda during the Russian-Ukrainian war are investigated. The impact of such propaganda on public opinion is deconstructed. Measures to counter such propaganda by non-state research organizations and non-state mass media are outlined. It was determined that in the modern world, propaganda turns the real world into a fictional world. As a form of communication, propaganda seeks to direct the reaction and/or behaviour of the subject. An important factor is that with the help of information that is promoted through certain technologies, an opinion that is important to the government is represented. Especially when this government is at war. And when the consumer of information receives a lot of information, he can not only understand the reality in which he is, but can also lose it. Therefore, at least two opposing points of view can form an information space, divide it and counterattack each other. As a result, confrontation between people will be established. In the war with Ukraine, Russia created a multi-level information space, in each of which Ukraine is accused of spreading Nazism, suppressing Russian speakers, spreading biological weapons, etc. A unique aspect of contemporary Russian propaganda is its creation of numerous narratives on diverse subjects, each consistently highlighting the presence of an enemy. And this is Ukraine. Undoubtedly, the goal of such a strategy is to justify a military invasion of the territory of Ukraine, and not only in 2022, but also in 2014. Propaganda narratives must also be thwarted by a multi-layered countermeasure, an important element of which is NGOs.

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax disease, is a worldwide threat to livestock, wildlife and public health. It is also considered one of the most important pathogens of bioterrorism. Rapid and reliable diagnosis and administration of antimicrobials are essential for effective anthrax treatment. In this study, we determined the in vitro susceptibilities of 40 isolates of B. anthracis isolated in Croatia over the recent two decades to 18 antimicrobials. Whole-genome sequencing was performed, and bioinformatics tools were used to determine virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance genes. Core genome-based multilocus sequence typing was used for isolate comparison and phylogenetic analysis. All isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials recommended for post-exposure prophylaxis or anthrax therapy. Susceptibility was found to all other tested antimicrobials that are an alternative for primary therapy. We found two beta-lactamase genes, but their expression is not sufficient to confer resistance. In all isolates used in this study, we found 21 virulence genes, 8 of which are responsible for toxin and capsule production. As far as phylogenetic analysis is concerned, the B. anthracis isolates from Croatia are categorised into two clades. The first is clade A, subclade Trans Eurasia, and the other is clade B, subclade B2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasites are ubiquitous, diverse, and have close interactions with humans and other animals. Despite this, they have not garnered significant interest from forensic scientists, and their utility as indicators in criminal investigations has been largely overlooked. To foster the development of forensic parasitology we explore the utility of parasites as forensic indicators in five broad areas: (i) wildlife trafficking and exploitation, (ii) biological attacks, (iii) sex crimes, (iv) criminal neglect of humans and other animals, and (v) indicators of movement and travel. To encourage the development and growth of forensic parasitology as a field, we lay out a four-step roadmap to increase the use and utility of parasites in criminal investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionIn the current climate of heightened terrorist activity, the deliberate release or threat of biological agents like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or their toxins to induce sickness or death among civilians has become a genuine possibility. The most crucial action during a bioterrorist strike is early warning. The possibility of such an occurrence in dental setting is underestimated. Methods and MaterialsSeventy five graduate students participated in the research. In a survey on zoonotic diseases, participants were asked whether they were familiar with the transmission from person to person, if the diseases caused significant morbidity and mortality, whether they were simple to produce and disseminate, and whether they posed a high risk of infection. ResultsGraph Prism was used to examine the data. A single proportion test was used to determine the “Aware Not Aware” group. The first 10 questions assessed dentists objective knowledge of bioterrorism. The importance of the last six questions was determined by their analysis of dentists’ preparedness and desire to respond to a bioterrorism associated occurrence via perceived knowledge. ConclusionGiven the real danger they may face, dentists needed to be vigilant regarding the prevention, detection, and treatment of zoonotic illnesses transmitted in their offices or as a vector while being commended for their courage in the face of adversity.

Introduction: In the current climate of heightened terrorist activity, the deliberate release or threat of biological agents like viruses, bacteria, fungi, or their toxins to induce sickness or death among civilians has become a genuine possibility. The most crucial action during a bioterrorist strike is early warning. The possibility of such an occurrence in dental setting is underestimated. Methods and Materials: Seventy five graduate students participated in the research. In a survey on zoonotic diseases, participants were asked whether they were familiar with the transmission from person to person, if the diseases caused significant morbidity and mortality, whether they were simple to produce and disseminate, and whether they posed a high risk of infection. Results: Graph Prism was used to examine the data. A single proportion test was used to determine the "Aware Not Aware" group. The first 10 questions assessed dentists objective knowledge of bioterrorism. The importance of the last six questions was determined by their analysis of dentists' preparedness and desire to respond to a bioterrorism associated occurrence via perceived knowledge. Conclusion: Given the real danger they may face, dentists needed to be vigilant regarding the prevention, detection, and treatment of zoonotic illnesses transmitted in their offices or as a vector while being commended for their courage in the face of adversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacillus anthracis is a well-known zoonotic pathogen that can cause disease in both animals and humans. Moreover, it has a high bioterrorism potential as its lethal spores are resistant to inactivation, are easy to produce in large quantities, and are easily spread over large areas. Anthrax cases occur in different parts of the world, including most European countries. Specific areas of Croatia are long known as anthrax districts, but with sporadically reported cases over the years. Here, we present a major outbreak of animal and human anthrax in the region of Lonjsko Polje in Croatia, a region not known to have anthrax cases in the past. The outbreak started in July 2022 and lasted several months, but most human and animal cases were reported in the first month. During the outbreak, there were 17 reported human cases of cutaneous anthrax and 29 laboratory-confirmed animal cases. However, due to issues in reporting in animals and the late finding of the carcasses, which made laboratory diagnostics challenging, the actual number of animal cases was probably significantly higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environment has evolved into a nonkinetic domain of warfare, with chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) threats posing significant risks. Historical events like the Spanish flu, anthrax poisoning, and the COVID-19 pandemic underscore the devastation caused by CBRN elements. Technological advancements have increased the risk of nonkinetic warfare, exemplified by the 2001 anthrax poisoning in the United States. To address this, countries must bolster their capabilities and invest in research and development for prevention, preparedness, and response strategies. This article focuses on bioterrorism within environmental security, emphasizing the need for countries to utilize limited resources effectively while considering potential animal-based threats. Collaboration among Indo- Pacific nations is essential, transcending bilateral issues to collectively safeguard the environment. The article examines each country's strengths and proposes cooperative strategies. Challenges include assessing stakeholder willingness to cooperate while maintaining territorial integrity and developing population training modules. Measures to address these challenges are imperative for effective preparedness and execution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every year, the number of potentially life-threatening pathogenic biological agents (PBAs) is rapidly growing, which are represented by viruses, bacteria, rickettsia, chlamydia, protozoa, fungi, genetically engineered constructs and modified microorganisms, prions and toxins. The use of PBAs for the purpose of destroying society, the economic resources of the country, deteriorating the quality of food and water supplies, intimidating the population, provoking internal unrest, destabilizing government, and creating economic, socio-psychological and environmental crises is nothing more than biological terrorism. The numerous international agreements, treaties and protocols that have been developed and ratified to date, limiting the production and use of weapons of mass destruction, do not guarantee the elimination of the risks of illegal acquisition and use of biologically active substances by terrorist organizations, which does not exclude the possibility of committing acts of bioterrorism. In this regard, the preservation and strengthening of administrative-legal, medical-biological, sanitary-epidemiological, veterinary and phytosanitary and other measures should form the basis of the state policy of the Russian Federation to counter the use and spread of PBAs.

Background: Despite its global eradication in 1977, smallpox remains a concern owing to its potential as a biological agent, thereby prompting the ongoing development and utilization of its vaccine. Vaccination with the Vaccinia virus induces immunity against variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox; however, this immunity does not extend to viruses of different genera within the Poxviridae family. In this study, we aimed to assess the efficacy of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method utilizing Vaccinia virus and recombinant A27L antigen for detecting antibodies against smallpox. Methods. An analysis of the serum from 20 individuals pre- and post-vaccination with the CJ strain (CJ50300) revealed neutralizing antibodies, which were confirmed using the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT). The ELISA method, validated with a PRNT50 cut-off value of >4, exhibited a sensitivity and specificity of >95% and was particularly reactive with the inactivated virus. Furthermore, adherence to the smallpox vaccination policy revealed significant differences in Orthopoxvirus antibody levels among 300 individuals of different age groups. These findings highlight the reliability and efficacy of the ELISA method in detecting post-vaccination antibodies and contribute significantly to diagnostic methods to prepare for potential smallpox resurgence and bioterrorism threats.

The peculiarities of the promotion of the narrative of Ukrainian biological weapons by Russian propaganda during the Russian-Ukrainian war are investigated. The impact of such propaganda on public opinion is deconstructed. Measures to counter such propaganda by non-state research organizations and non-state mass media are outlined. It was determined that in the modern world, propaganda turns the real world into a fictional world. As a form of communication, propaganda seeks to direct the reaction and/or behaviour of the subject. An important factor is that with the help of information that is promoted through certain technologies, an opinion that is important to the government is represented. Especially when this government is at war. And when the consumer of information receives a lot of information, he can not only understand the reality in which he is, but can also lose it. Therefore, at least two opposing points of view can form an information space, divide it and counterattack each other. As a result, confrontation between people will be established. In the war with Ukraine, Russia created a multi-level information space, in each of which Ukraine is accused of spreading Nazism, suppressing Russian speakers, spreading biological weapons, etc. A unique aspect of contemporary Russian propaganda is its creation of numerous narratives on diverse subjects, each consistently highlighting the presence of an enemy. And this is Ukraine. Undoubtedly, the goal of such a strategy is to justify a military invasion of the territory of Ukraine, and not only in 2022, but also in 2014. Propaganda narratives must also be thwarted by a multi-layered countermeasure, an important element of which is NGOs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic.

Botulism is dangerous toxic infection caused by a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. The mortality rate from botulism can reach 70% of all cases of illness in case of untimely initiation of treatment. The pathogenesis of botulism involves the damage to the central nervous system by a toxin produced by C. botulinum. Currently there are seven recognized antigenic types of this toxin. Botulinum toxin is included into the group of biological agents and it is one of the most likely agents to be used in a biological attack. Since botulinum neurotoxin is a complex nucleoprotein complex and the traces of DNA can be detected even in purified toxin preparations, we have elaborated a technique for detecting and identifying DNA of toxigenic strains of Clostridium botulinum types A, B, E, that cause human botulism in most cases. This technique is based on the the detection of residual amounts of this DNA in botulinum toxin using multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay with fluorescent hybridization detection. The main obstacle to development of a technique for the detection and identification of DNA of toxigenic strains is the high variability of the genes responsible for the synthesis of botulinum toxin. We have established a region of the gene with the lowest homology in all strains. This requirement is met by a fragment of the bont gene that encodes a light chain of a neurotoxin and is highly conserved in the strains of C. botulinum producing one type of toxin. The paper represents the results of the definition of analytical sensitivity and specific activity of the developed method. The specificity of the determination is 100%, the analytical sensitivity – 1×102 mc./ml. The method can be used to analyze food, samples of clinical materials and environmental samples suspected of being contaminated with toxigenic strains of C. botulinum.

Enzyme immunoassay and polymerase chain reaction have become the «gold standard» for the detection of biological pathogens. The method of amplified immunoassay – immuno-PCR allows to combine both methods into a single platform to preserve their advantages and to achieve high sensitivity of the analysis. The purpose of this work is to consider the possibilities and prospects of using PCR-amplified immunoassay for the detection of pathogenic biological agents. Immuno-PCR makes it possible to detect various non-nucleic antigenic determinants in PCR by amplifying a DNA tag conjugated with a specific antibody. The registration of the results is also possible in real time as in the real-time PCR test systems. The main methodological issues in the immuno-PCR technology are: the choice of a carrier of biomolecule complexes, the choice of a method for conjugation of detection antibodies and a reporter nucleic acid, optimization of methods for amplifying signal DNA and accounting for results, and development of methods for reducing background indicators. We consider it necessary to carry out research and development work on the development and the creation of diagnostic kits based on immuno-PCR. With regard to the task of detecting small and trace amounts of antigens of pathogenic biological agents, the most likely diagnostic «niche» of the immuno-PCR method will be the detection of toxins of microbial and non-microbial origin, the minimum clinically significant dose for which is less than the sensitivity of the corresponding immunochemical test systems. Taking into account the prospects for the development of the method, in future it is possible to develop such test systems for the detection of hapten analytes, for example, some toxicants of non-biological origin.

ABSTRACTUndergraduate students in the biomedical sciences are mostly unaware of how clinical microbiology laboratories handle suspected agents of bioterrorism or emerging infectious diseases. The Public Health Security Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 requires the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to maintain a list of microbes that pose serious biological threats to human health and safety, including Tier 1 agents with the potential for use in bioterrorism. The Laboratory Response Network (LRN), founded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Association of Public Health Laboratories, coordinates the response of sentinel, reference, and national laboratories to these biothreats. The sentinel laboratories, which comprise most hospital-based and commercial laboratories, are the first to encounter a suspicious agent. For this reason, the LRN has published a series of testing guidelines to assist the sentinel laboratories in deciding whether a microbial isolate should be considered potentially hazardous and thus sent to a reference or national laboratory for further characterization. Here, we describe a simple laboratory exercise that teaches sentinel-level testing requirements in the context of an applied setting of a potential outbreak of anthrax that would require a sentinel laboratory to recognize a potential threat, attempt to rule it out, and refer to a national laboratory for identification.

Deliberate or threatening use of viruses, bacteria, toxins, or poisonous substances prepared from living organisms to cause death or disease in humans, animals, and plants is called bioterrorism. These agents can be spread by spraying them in the air, causing infection in animals, transferring this infection to humans, or contaminating water and food sources. Defense measures, such as emergency responses to this type of terrorism, are unfamiliar and unknown. The general state of helplessness caused by the lack of complete preparation and the lack of anti-pollution strategies complicates the issue. The ability and widespread interest of civilian personnel to participate in the development of chemical and biological weapons is directly related to easy access to academic excellence around the world. Another factor is the tempting misuse of freely available electronic data and knowledge about the production of antibiotics, vaccines, and conventional weapons with their various complex details. The use of animals in laboratory research to better understand the mechanisms of disease and treatment and to overcome the limitations of clinical trials has a long history. For many viruses, laboratory diagnostic methods and reagents must be continuously modified to account for genetic variations and variants. Unlike bacterial diseases, many of which can be treated with antimicrobial drugs, there are fewer medical countermeasures to combat viral infections. Many of these pathogens are lethal or cause debilitating diseases in humans, making it ethically inappropriate to test the effectiveness of these countermeasures on human volunteers. Researchers must have a correct understanding of various animal models so that they can make the correct choice, gain a better understanding of the clinical symptoms of viral diseases, and provide possible options for treatment and vaccine development. It should be noted that decision-making when faced with a biological attack should be done away from too much fear, and this requires researchers to have prior knowledge of facing these threats. Despite all these checks and measures taken in advance, the international preparedness against these attacks is weak, which can be attributed to the lack of global plans to deal with the epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study determined the status and outcomes of bioterrorism-related training programs for healthcare workers. While media-based education/training uses simulations, games, and web-based programs, evidence of their effectiveness and relevant systematic reviews remain scarce. This systematic review focused on articles published in PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, and Research Information Sharing Service between January 1, 1990 and September 17, 2023. Among 2,592 identified articles, literature quality was assessed in 12 articles. In the most articles, bioterrorism-related knowledge and problem-solving ability significantly increased following interventions. However, quality assessment results provided insufficient evidence regarding improvement in healthcare workers' preparedness to face bioterrorism after undergoing bioterrorism-related training programs. Developing easily accessible and regularly implemented bioterrorism training programs for healthcare workers could enhance their preparedness toward terrorism and provide high-quality evidence for effective bioterrorism responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, Western pharmaceutical companies have mastered the production of licensed drugs based on transovarial chicken specific antibodies (IgY antibodies) intended for the treatment and prevention of infections caused by Helicobacter pylori, influenza virus and other pathogens. Of particular interest is the possibility of using IgY antibodies as an inexpensive specific antidote for emergency specific prevention of infections caused by pathogens of dangerous and especially dangerous infections. The purpose of this work is to summarize the results of studies that have shown a high therapeutic potential of transovarial specific immunoglobulins in the treatment and prevention of dangerous viral, bacterial infections and injuries by biological toxins – potential agents of biological weapons (BW). The advantage of using IgY technologies for passive immunization is a non-invasive method for obtaining antibodies, as well as a large amount of them – 20–30 g of immunoglobulins, which can be obtained from one laying hen per year. An important advantage of IgY over immunoglobulins derived from mammalian serum is that they do not interact with complement components, nor with rheumatoid factor, nor with Fc receptors of mammalian immunocompetent cells, which significantly reduces the manifestation of adverse reactions, in particular, antibody-dependent enhancement of infection (ADE). Experiments carried out in vivo and in vitro showed a high activity of IgY antibodies in suppressing the damaging effect of pathogens of especially dangerous infections and biological toxins. It is shown in the article, that the replacement of mammalian IgG with avian transovarial IgY allows obtaining commercially significant amounts of thermostable specific antibodies that do not cause ADE, and expands the possibilities of methods for specific prevention and treatment of lesions caused by viruses, bacteria, and toxins – potential agents of biological weapons.

IntroductionBioterrorism is an important issue in the field of biosecurity, and effectively dealing with bioterrorism has become an urgent task worldwide. Healthcare workers are considered bioterrorism first responders, who shoulder essential responsibilities and must be equipped to deal with bioterrorism. This study aims to extract and summarize the main research components of the bioterrorism knowledge, attitude, and practice dimensions among healthcare workers.MethodThis study utilized a systematic review research design based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases for peer-reviewed literature, and the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 was used to assess the quality of the literature.ResultA total of 16 studies were included in the final selection. Through the analysis and summary of the included studies, three main aspects and 14 subaspects of the knowledge dimension, three main aspects and 10 subaspects of the attitude dimension, and two main aspects and six subaspects of the practice dimension were extracted.ConclusionThis study conducted a literature review on bioterrorism knowledge, attitudes, and practices for healthcare workers based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The findings can guide improvements in health literacy and provide beneficial information to professional organizations that need to respond effectively to bioterrorism.

B. anthracis is one of the most often weaponized pathogens. States had it in their bioweapons programs and criminals and terrorists have used or attempted to use it. This study is motivated by the narrative that emerging and developing technologies today contribute to the amplification of danger through greater easiness, accessibility and affordability of steps in the making of an anthrax weapon. As states would have way better preconditions if they would decide for an offensive bioweapons program, we focus on bioterrorism. This paper analyzes and assesses the possible bioterrorism threat arising from advances in synthetic biology, genome editing, information availability, and other emerging, and converging sciences and enabling technologies. Methodologically we apply foresight methods to encourage the analysis of contemporary technological advances. We have developed a conceptual six-step foresight science framework approach. It represents a synthesis of various foresight methodologies including literature review, elements of horizon scanning, trend impact analysis, red team exercise, and free flow open-ended discussions. Our results show a significant shift in the threat landscape. Increasing affordability, widespread distribution, efficiency, as well as ease of use of DNA synthesis, and rapid advances in genome-editing and synthetic genomic technologies lead to an ever-growing number and types of actors who could potentially weaponize B. anthracis. Understanding the current and future capabilities of these technologies and their potential for misuse critically shapes the current and future threat landscape and underlines the necessary adaptation of biosecurity measures in the spheres of multi-level political decision making and in the science community.

Synthetic biology is an emerging multidisciplinary field that aims to design and construct new biological systems not found in nature. Whereas synthetic biology may yield tremendous benefits, it may also pose substantial risks to human health and the environment that must be addressed. In this paper, we examined the environmental risks associated with synthetic biology, including changes to or depletion of the environment, competition with native species, horizontal gene transfer, pathogenicity or toxicity, bioterrorism, and laboratory biosecurity. We highlight three approaches for assessing environmental risks in synthetic biology: solution-focused risk assessment, Bayesian networks, and network of networks for sustainable capacity building. An ethical governance framework is proposed to facilitate innovation while minimising risks. This framework emphasises the precautionary principle and balancing stakeholder interests prior to project development and commercialisation. Overall, we underscore the importance and urgency of assessing and managing the environmental risks of synthetic biology to ensure its safe and ethical development and application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current heightened international political climate is accompanied by increased risk of chemical or biological agent weaponization. Historical accounts of biochemical warfare are extensive, and considering the recent use of such agents for targeted attacks, clinicians need to recognize and manage these cases. However, agent properties such as the color, odor, ability to be aerosolized, and long incubation period can introduce difficulties in the diagnostic and management approach. We searched PubMed and Scopus for a colorless, odorless, aerosolized substance with an incubation period of at least 4 hours. Data from articles were summarized and reported by agent. Based on data from the available literature, we included agents such as nerve agents, ricin, botulinum toxin, anthrax, tularemia, and psittacosis in this review. We also highlighted potential chemical and biological agents that could be weaponized and the optimal strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of patients exposed to an unknown aerosolized biological or chemical bioterrorism agent.

Biotechnology became a paradigm-shifting science among all subfields of biology. The benefits of biotechnology have reached many practical fields, whether human health, animal, and/or agricultural. However, wherever there is a biotechnology practice, there is an associated biohazard with it, and its negative impact may reach all living entities including humans. Therefore, the cooperation of the leading institutions in this field has culminated in creating the concepts and applications of biosafety and biosecurity. The countries of the Middle East are considered biotechnology-practicing and have shown a clear acceptance to this field. But unfortunately, the Middle East region is one that is facing the most multi-challenges, which would constitute real and noticeable concern at the local and international levels. Such challenges represented by wars and armed conflicts, deteriorating economic conditions, the large number of refugees, and the spread of many epidemics. Thus, limiting the region's ability to deal with the surrounding biological hazards and struggling the way to the one health concept. Therefore, this article aims to shed light on the activities of the Middle East countries in the field of biotechnology and to address potential biological threats, whether natural such as the spread of viruses, or intentional such as biological attacks and bioterrorism. The article also shows the capacity of the countries of the region in the field of biosafety and biosecurity based on available information. Accordingly, some countries are lacking the required level of preparedness to face potential biological threats. Multi-institutional and international cooperation between the concerned countries will significantly enhance the capacity of the region in biosafety and biosecurity to meet the level of biological risk.Search methodology: wide range of related keywords (based on the section) combined with the name of the region, or one country individually have been searched using available search engines and databases such as google scholar and PubMed. After scanning the content of the found results, irrelevant articles have been excluded. Figures 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 were created by biorender.com.

Policy PointsThe critical task of preparedness is inseparable from the regular work of advancing population health and health equity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The effects of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) incidents on human society can be irreparable. Preparing the health system for these incidents is essential. This study aims to identify obstacles to hospital preparedness against CBRN incidents and provide solutions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured interview method in 2022. The research community included experts in the fields of CBRN, and 17 persons were included in the study through purposive sampling. The interviews were collected by interview guide and recorded face-to-face and online and were analyzed using thematic content analysis method in MS Word 2016. RESULTS: The interviews’ analysis was classified into two main categories and 34 sub-categories. Some of the most important obstacles to the hospital preparedness against CBRN incidents were the lack of proper crisis management, the lack of specialist staff, the stress of employees, the lack of turnover and sufficient rest for employees, legal gaps, and so on. The main strategies were determining the type and extent of the risk factor, strong crisis management, the lack of parallelism, continuous monitoring, having a protocol and road map, appropriate training programs, having skilled personnel, rapid response of personnel, positive attitude of the staff, and the favorable condition of the building. CONCLUSION: The appointment of an expert in the field of CBRN and having a specialized unit, the existence of specialized and trained staff along with access to the required facilities, clear instructions, and intra-departmental and inter-departmental cooperation affect the readiness of hospitals against CBRN incidents.

INTRODUCTION. The presented article is devoted to an extremely curious and, without exaggeration, urgent topic. The authors seek to understand the content and legal concept of biosafety in International Law. The researchers seek to list the biosafety issues in order to define concrete aspects related to responsibility of the States for using biological weapons. The authors analyze new legal trends on ensuring the international biosafety. The article is focused on legal issues by raising many questions about what should be considered a just war in the view of international humanitarian law, the issues of fundamental principles in current international law (the principle use of force, the right of States to self-defense in case of a bioattack, the principle of the peaceful settlement of international disputes, the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of States, arms control, and responsibility). The writers give an overview of new types of sovereignty such as biosovereignty, cyber sovereignty, cyberbiosovereignty, and genomic sovereignty of States, the legal concept of international biocrimes (genomocide), the legal classification of bioterrorism, bioaggression, biopolitics, and bioeconomics. The authors consider the importance of facilitating the broad interpretation of the concept of biosafety.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The research uses general scientific and special cognitive techniques wherein legal analysis and synthesis, systemic, formal-legal, comparative-legal, historical-legal and dialectical methods are applied.RESEARCH RESULTS. The authors found out that despite the prohibition of biological weapon there are still other urgent issues such as an international control mechanism for monitoring the non-proliferation of biological weapons has not been established yet. The Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) has not been adopted yet. The study concludes with an idea that the problem of banning certain types of biomedical research has not been solved in some States and at the international level. The authors note such important problems as the lack of an international control mechanism for monitoring the prohibition of the development, production and stockpiling of bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons, as well as the threat to the safety of genomic research and confidentiality of genetic data. In this paper, we interpret the concept of biosafety rather broadly, considering the issues typical of allied industries. Biosecurity and biosafety are directly related to ensuring environmental security, marine security, food security and outer space security. The researchers paid attention to the issue of legal regulation of ensuring environmental, biological, and food safety. Due to this fact, it is hard to do so with regard to the causal link between the acts (bioterrorism) of state agencies, the violation of the principles of international law, standards of human rights and the consequences that occurred. It is not clear from the text of the BTWC Convention which international organ/body can investigate such acts in international affairs and which norm of international law directly should be applied.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Following a review of the content, the authors raise possible problems, strategies, suggestions and guidelines for ensuring biosafety in international law. The authors conclude that near future new categories of weapons of mass destruction appear in the world, moreover, genetic weapons should be classified as weapons of mass destruction, along with chemical, biological, bacteriological, and nuclear weapons. Technological developments will trigger the issues of fundamental principles in current international law. The authors came to the conclusion about extension of the universal jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court in case biological and genetic weapons are used. The authors encourage the complement to the international legal regulation the necessity to adopt a Protocol to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), establishing an international control mechanism for verifying prohibitions on the development, production, and stockpiling of biological weapons is obvious. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction adopted in 1993, which contains a mechanism for verifying compliance with the prohibitions of the Convention, can be considered a precedent for the effective regulation of the circulation of hazardous substances all over the world.

Abstract Background and purpose Bioterrorism is a global threat. Nurses are one of the first groups that should be ready for it. College years are the best time to educate these issues. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of simulation and workshop on knowledge and practice of nursing students regarding bioterrorism. Materials and methods This was an experimental study. The study sample consisted of 40 last-year nursing students who were randomly assigned to two groups by using random numbers table. Data was collected using a demographic questionnaire, bioterrorism knowledge scale, and an OSCE checklist. Before the intervention, the students completed the study questionnaires and a six-station OSCE test. The workshop group (20 students) learned how to deal with bioterrorism through lectures. The simulation group (20 students) participated in a simulation learning program. After one month, the students completed the study tools again. Finally, collected data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics in SPSS V.16. Results The difference between the knowledge and performance scores of both groups (workshop and simulation), before and after the intervention, was statistically significant (P

The Covid-19 pandemic has revived interest in the impact of using pathogens as weapons. Bioterrorism is the intentional release of viruses, bacteria or other agents used to cause disease or death in humans, animals or plants. There is the potential for state-sponsored terrorism against strategic targets and the potential for the use of biological agents in committing crimes that have no political goals but are committed for extortion or revenge. This study aims to analyze the threat of bioterrorism in Indonesia using a qualitative descriptive method. This study involved collecting data from various sources, such as related documents and reports, as well as interviews with relevant experts and stakeholders. The results of the study show that Indonesia is facing a real threat of bioterrorism which can endanger national defense and security as well as public health. Like Covid-19, even though it has been declared a pandemic, Covid-19 can also be called a bioterrorism threat even though it is not fully realized. Through this study, researchers want to show that threat identification in Indonesia still needs to be improved. This also needs to be accompanied by optimizing efforts to prevent and deal with bioterrorism, especially in the aspect of inter-agency coordination and increasing state intelligence capabilities. In supporting these efforts, regulations, human resources, technology and infrastructure need to be prepared as early as possible in order to deal with the threat of bioterrorism.

Introduction: A bioterrorist attack is the intentional release of pathogenic micro-organisms, such as viruses, bacteria, or their toxins, with the aim of causing illness or death in people, animals, or plants. In this study, we investigated the knowledge and practices related to bioterrorism preparedness in Central Portugal. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was performed with a convenience sample in the population of Aveiro, Central Portugal, to assess their knowledge about bioterrorism, self-perceived preparation to act in case of bioterrorism and pet owners' preparation. An online validated questionnaire was completed by 198 participants from January to February 2020. Results: In this study, 46.0% of the respondents answered that they knew nothing about bioterrorism or had never heard about the possibility of bioterrorist attacks. In the case of an attack, 77.8% participants did not consider themselves prepared to act, and 62.1% did not know how to use personal protective equipment. More than half of the respondents (60.6%) were not familiar with the local emergency response system in response to catastrophes/bioterrorist attacks. Almost all respondents (95.6%) assigned high importance to drinking water and food for pets, but only 22.9% of respondents attributed high importance to pet carrier boxes, an item essential for cat evacuation. Conclusion: This is the first survey of this kind in Portugal concerning bioterrorism preparedness in citizens and animals. Results suggest that Portuguese knowledge is limited, and people have inadequate preparedness for a bioterrorist attack. These results reinforce the importance of further studies to better understand the existing gaps in knowledge of Portuguese citizens, strengthen the need to adopt the One Health concept in preparedness plans and emphasize the crucial role of health education in prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since its first identification in 1894 during the third pandemic in Hong Kong, there has been significant progress in understanding the lifestyle of Yersinia pestis, the pathogen that is responsible for plague. Although we now have some understanding of the pathogen's physiology, genetics, genomics, evolution, gene regulation, pathogenesis and immunity, there are many unknown aspects of the pathogen and its disease development. Here, we focus on some of the knowns and unknowns related to Y. pestis and plague. We notably focus on some key Y. pestis physiologic and virulence traits that are important for its mammal-flea-mammal life cycle, but also its emergence from the enteropathogen, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Some aspects of the genetic diversity of Y. pestis, the distribution and ecology of plague, as well as the medical countermeasures to protect our population are also provided. Lastly, we present some biosafety and biosecurity information related to Y. pestis and plague. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biotechnology became a paradigm-shifting science among all subfields of biology. The benefits of biotechnology have reached many practical fields, whether human health, animal, and/or agricultural. However, wherever there is a biotechnology practice, there is an associated biohazard with it, and its negative impact may reach all living entities including humans. Therefore, the cooperation of the leading institutions in this field has culminated in creating the concepts and applications of biosafety and biosecurity. The countries of the Middle East are considered biotechnology-practicing and have shown a clear acceptance to this field. But unfortunately, the Middle East region is one that is facing the most multichallenges, which would constitute real and noticeable concern at the local and international levels. Such challenges represented by wars and armed conflicts, deteriorating economic conditions, the large number of refugees, and the spread of many epidemics. Thus, limiting the region's ability to deal with the surrounding biological hazards and struggling the way to the one health concept. Therefore, this article aims to shed light on the activities of the Middle East countries in the field of biotechnology and to address potential biological threats, whether natural such as the spread of viruses, or intentional such as biological attacks and bioterrorism. The article also shows the capacity of the countries of the region in the field of biosafety and biosecurity based on available information. Accordingly, some countries are lacking the required level of preparedness to face potential biological threats. Multi-institutional and international cooperation between the concerned countries will significantly enhance the capacity of the region in biosafety and biosecurity to meet the level of biological risk. Search methodology: wide range of related keywords (based on the section) combined with the name of the region, or one country individually have been searched using available search engines and databases such as google scholar and PubMed. After scanning the content of the found results, irrelevant articles have been excluded. Figures 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7 were created by biorender.com. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant toxins – ricin and abrin, obtained in a purified form from the beans of the castor bean and Abrus precatorius respectively, are considered by Western experts as potential damaging agents of a biological nature. The purpose of this work is to consider the danger of using ricin and abrin as agents of biological terrorism, as well as to assess the existing approaches and means for identifying these toxins, treating the intoxication caused by them, as well as the level of development of vaccine preparations. Both toxins have a similar molecular structure and mechanism of action. They consist of two subunits – A and B, resistant to high temperatures and extreme pH values. The mechanism of their damaging action is based on irreversible inhibition of the process of protein synthesis. The LD50 of ricin for humans, according to various sources, is 3 µg/kg for inhalation and intravenous intake, 22–25 µg/kg for enteral intake, and about 500 µg/kg for subcutaneous intake. Abrin is more toxic than ricin, with an LD50 for humans ranging from 0.1 µg/kg to 1 µg/kg depending on the route of entry. In case of enteral poisoning with ricin and abrin, the victims develop symptoms of gastroenteritis within a few hours: nausea, vomiting and pain in the abdominal cavity and chest, diarrhea. Bleeding from various parts of the gastrointestinal tract may be present. In future, general intoxication symptoms (headache, weakness, fever) and symptoms of multiple organ damage (acute renal failure and acute liver failure) develop. In the terminal stage, symptoms of vascular shock and vascular collapse are expressed. Death usually occurs on the third day or later. Cases of the use of ricin and abrin for criminal and terrorist purposes are described in the article. The main approaches and modern means of indication, means of treating ricin and abrine intoxication, as well as the state of development of vaccine preparations are shown. The given data show that the danger of these toxins as damaging agents is underestimated in Russia. It is necessary to develop diagnostic test systems that allow early detection of intoxication with plant toxins in the affected and the toxins themselves on environmental objects, as well as specific means for the treatment and prevention of acute poisoning with ricin and abrin.

Introduction and objective The aim of the study was to analyze available literature on the development of biological warfare and combating the SARS CoV-2 pandemic. Against the background of contemporary threats from biological factors, the strengths and weaknesses of response in the event of a bioterrorist attack during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic have been identified. The scope and importance of international cooperation in the fight against the pandemic is assessed. Review methods The more important literature on bioterrorism, biological weapons and the COVID-19 pandemic, both from earlier work and recent publications, was analyzed, emphasizing new threats and adequate defence against them. Brief description of the state of knowledge The bio-warfare threat and the current COVID 19 pandemic that has hit mankind on a global scale has clearly shown how dangerous biological agents are and what effects they can cause, negatively affecting every sphere of human activity with catastrophic consequences. Data on examples of bioterrorist attacks carried out and research on the development of biological weapons and methods of combating pandemic COVID-19, were reviewed. New threats related to technological development,including those resulting from genetic manipulation, biosynthesis, and modern means of delivery, are pointed out. Attention has been paid to the implications of controlling the proliferation of biological weapons and the issues of international cooperation in the fight against bioterrorism and the COVD-19 pandemic. Summary The lesson learned clearly demonstrates the weakness of states in responding to such threats. The risks of uncontrolled scientific advances are still underestimated. Appropriate international control measures must be taken urgently to prepare for new pandemics, bioterrorist attacks, and the possibility of using modern biological weapons.

Biological warfare has attracted people since the earliest times. During the Cold War, bio-weapons were part of the arsenal of both world superpowers. The Convention prohibiting the production, storage, transfer and use of potential biological weapons (BWC) was signed 50 years ago. The question arises how sincere the signatory states were in its implementation. The rapid development of molecular biology has raised awareness about its potential misuse in terms of creating new and more dangerous bio-weapons, as well as the question of ethics in biomedical research. The anthrax campaign in the USA represents a turning point after which the use of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), including biological ones, has become part of the narrative that accompanies each war conflict. Epidemics and pandemics of avian and swine flu, Zika virus, SARS, MERS and COVID-19, as well as their implications, have proved the significance of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of microorganisms, their epidemiological, microbiological, genetic and antigenic characteristics, methods of their diagnosis, prevention and treatment, not only from the biomedical, but also from the security aspect. Perhaps the 50th anniversary is the right time to ask why the International Expert Body for controlling the implementation of the BTWC provisions has not been constituted yet.

The author often mentioned in his works that there is no inhabited territory in the world that is resistant to terrorism, while the roots of terrorism, surrounded by different motives and causes, go far back in history. Therefore, the author identifies terrorism as a world problem, which is never isolated in one environment, but very quickly, like a forest fire, spreads to other areas. In the era of rapid information and technological development, the concept of terrorism terrorism is becoming less and less precise and unambiguous as it is increasingly used. Given that we have seen in the not-so-distant past that terrorist organizations are unscrupulous in their attacks, one of the main concerns of modern times is undoubtedly the possibility of using biological weapons for terrorist purposes. This paper analyzes in detail the somewhat intimidating form of terrorism, known as bioterrorism, a distinction was made between this and other types of terrorism, and we have given a historical view of the use of biological weapons, all with the aim of more precisely defining this extremely complex phenomenon.

Francisella tularensis is the causative agent of tularemia and a Tier I bioterrorism agent. In the 1900s, several vaccines were developed against tularemia including the killed "Foshay" vaccine, subunit vaccines comprising F. tularensis protein(s) or lipoproteins(s) in an adjuvant formulation, and the F. tularensis Live Vaccine Strain (LVS); none were licensed in the U.S.A. or European Union. The LVS vaccine retains toxicity in humans and animals-especially mice-but has demonstrated efficacy in humans, and thus serves as the current gold standard for vaccine efficacy studies. The U.S.A. 2001 anthrax bioterrorism attack spawned renewed interest in vaccines against potential biowarfare agents including F. tularensis. Since live attenuated-but not killed or subunit-vaccines have shown promising efficacy and since vaccine efficacy against respiratory challenge with less virulent subspecies holarctica or F. novicida, or against non-respiratory challenge with virulent subsp. tularensis (Type A) does not reliably predict vaccine efficacy against respiratory challenge with virulent subsp. tularensis, the route of transmission and species of greatest concern in a bioterrorist attack, in this review, we focus on live attenuated tularemia vaccine candidates tested against respiratory challenge with virulent Type A strains, including homologous vaccines derived from mutants of subsp. holarctica, F. novicida, and subsp. tularensis, and heterologous vaccines developed using viral or bacterial vectors to express F. tularensis immunoprotective antigens. We compare the virulence and efficacy of these vaccine candidates with that of LVS and discuss factors that can significantly impact the development and evaluation of live attenuated tularemia vaccines. Several vaccines meet what we would consider the minimum criteria for vaccines to go forward into clinical development-safety greater than LVS and efficacy at least as great as LVS, and of these, several meet the higher standard of having efficacy ≥LVS in the demanding mouse model of tularemia. These latter include LVS with deletions in purMCD, sodBFt , capB or wzy; LVS ΔcapB that also overexpresses Type VI Secretion System (T6SS) proteins; FSC200 with a deletion in clpB; the single deletional purMCD mutant of F. tularensis SCHU S4, and a heterologous prime-boost vaccine comprising LVS ΔcapB and Listeria monocytogenes expressing T6SS proteins.

Due to still current biological threats related to the activities of terrorist groups, crisis situations in many regions of the world, as well as cyclical epidemics, fast and reliable detection of biological contamina-tion is an essential element of ensuring broadly understood safety of the population. The work deals with the sampling and verification procedures. This paper focuses on sample preparation techniques for analysis and details analytical methods for identifying biological agents. Additionally, on-site technologies implemented in military devices for the detection of biological contamination were discussed. The work enables the reader to get acquainted with modern techniques of detection of factors of biological origin and their identification, which is the knowledge necessary when choosing the appropriate equipment depending on the purpose of the contamination recognition sub-unit and the task at hand. Knowledge of sam-pling and preparation of samples for analysis will help to increase the skills of the sampling teams to do so and to achieve reliable results by using appropriate procedures and eliminating the possibility of loss of the analyte or inadvertent contamination of the sample. It will also increase safety at every stage of working with biological samples. All these activities can contribute to the global increase in security of the population around the world. Keywords: chemical sciences, biological weapon, bioterrorism, CBRN, PCR, UV-LIF

Bioterrorism is the intentional dissemination of bio-warfare agents in a population to cause illness or death. Microbial forensics plays an essential role in the investigation of bio-terror attacks. This is a new field of forensic science that is still in the early stages of growth and faces huge theoretical and ethical obstacles. There is a profound concern with current biotechnological developments that bacteria and viruses may be genetically engineered to modify them as biological weapons. Bioterrorism, like other nuclear weapons, has the potential to cause humanitarian disasters. This paper summarizes different detection methods of bio-warfare agents besides highlighting the various phases of bioterror attacks through the investigatory lens of microbial forensics.

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Bio Terrorism is a form of terrorism in which biological agents such as pathogens, fungi, viruses, and toxins are deliberately unleashed onto the world in order to kill a wide range of humans. Bio punk theory investigates the ramifications that are most commonly associative to the rapid advances made in the field of biotechnology, synthetic biology, and agricultural biotechnology. Bio Punk is the futuristic derivative of cyberpunk theory, subgenre of science fiction. Paolo Bacigalupi's "Windup Girl" depicts the impact of corporate culture and how an advance in biotechnology eventually leads to bioterrorism. This article delves into the topic of Artificial Intelligence, bioterrorism, corporate culture, and its impact on people and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacillus anthracis, present as a very durable endospore in soil, causes zoonotic illness which is mainly associated with herbivores and domestic animals. Human cases are scarce and often involve populations close to infected livestock. If anthrax is no longer of public health concern in developed countries, B. anthracis is one of the top-tier biological weapon agents. It is classified by the CDC as a category A agent. Since 1994, emerging strains of Bacillus cereus have been associated with anthrax-like disease in mammals. Some clinical strains of B. cereus harbor anthrax-like plasmid genes (pXO1 and pXO2) associated with non-human primate and human infections, with the same clinical presentation of inhalation anthrax and mortality rates. Although currently restricted to certain limited areas of circulation, the emergence of these new strains of B. cereus extends the list of potential agents possibly usable for bioterrorism or as a biological weapon. It is therefore important to improve our knowledge of the phylogeny within the B. cereus sensu lato group to better understand the origin of these strains. We can then more efficiently monitor the emergence of new strains to better control the risk of infection and limit potentially malicious uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan required that forensic science was used beyond the traditional law enforcement and criminal justice goals and applied to military operations. The 9/11 terror attacks in the United States (US) inspired further attacks in the Western World and highlighted the importance of national and international intelligence sharing for counterterrorism operations. Following the 9/11 attacks, anthrax was disseminated in the US mail system, demonstrating a successful modern use of biological agents. As a result, nations enhanced their Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) capabilities to prevent, prepare, respond, and recover from CBRN attacks but in the last decade, there has been a decrease in capabilities across military forensic science, counterterrorism, and CBRN. Recent changes in the global and strategic environment such as, the war in the Ukraine, the threat of grey zone conflicts (below the threshold of war) such as the conflict in the Middle East, and strategic competition, indicates international, national, state and local CBRN capabilities need to be reinvigorated in a world under digital transformations. There is a need for a harmonized approach to enhance the integration of military, law enforcement, and CBRN operations to support decision-making. In this paper, we look back to where we have come from and where we are now to make recommendations on where to from here for military forensic science and counterterrorism, including CBRN which intersects both of these systems., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Bacterial traceability refers to the use of a range of techniques to trace the origins and transmission pathways of bacteria. It is crucial in controlling the spread of diseases, analyzing bioterrorism incidents, and advancing microbial forensics. In recent years, the frequency and scope of bacterial outbreaks have continued to escalate, exerting significant impacts on global biosecurity, public health, and other areas. Consequently, it is required to process traceability of bacteria timely and accurately around the globe. The rapid development of biological and physicochemical traceability techniques provides convenience for tracing bacteria. These techniques not only surpass traditional methods in terms of sensitivity, traceability and throughput, but also find more extensive applications in elucidating bacterial growth mechanisms, transmission routes, and geographical origins. This paper systematically reviews the latest research progress and applications of technologies of bacterial traceability, highlighting key advancements and projecting future trends, with the intent of providing a valuable reference for researchers, facilitating further studies and innovations in this field., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of syndromic surveillance is to provide early warning of public health incidents, real-time situational awareness during incidents and emergencies, and reassurance of the lack of impact on the population, particularly during mass gatherings. The United Kingdom Health Security Agency (UKHSA) currently coordinates a real-time syndromic surveillance service that encompasses 6 national syndromic surveillance systems reporting on daily health care usage across England. Each working day, UKHSA analyzes syndromic data from over 200,000 daily patient encounters with the National Health Service, monitoring over 140 unique syndromic indicators, risk assessing over 50 daily statistical exceedances, and taking and recommending public health action on these daily. This English syndromic surveillance service had its origins as a small exploratory pilot in a single region of England in 1999 involving a new pilot telehealth service, initially reporting only on "cold or flu" calls. This pilot showed the value of syndromic surveillance in England, providing advanced warning of the start of seasonal influenza activity over existing laboratory-based surveillance systems. Since this initial pilot, a program of real-time syndromic surveillance has evolved from the single-system, -region, -indicator pilot (using manual data transfer methods) to an all-hazard, multisystem, automated national service. The suite of systems now monitors a wide range of syndromes, from acute respiratory illness to diarrhea to cardiac conditions, and is widely used in routine public health surveillance and for monitoring seasonal respiratory disease and incidents such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Here, we describe the 25-year evolution of the English syndromic surveillance system, focusing on the expansion and improvements in data sources and data management, the technological and digital enablers, and novel methods of data analytics and visualization., (©Alex J Elliot, Helen E Hughes, Sally E Harcourt, Sue Smith, Paul Loveridge, Roger A Morbey, Amardeep Bains, Obaghe Edeghere, Natalia R Jones, Daniel Todkill, Gillian E Smith. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 17.09.2024.)