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Most studies projecting human survivability limits to extreme heat with climate change use a 35 °C wet-bulb temperature (Tw) threshold without integrating variations in human physiology. This study applies physiological and biophysical principles for young and older adults, in sun or shade, to improve current estimates of survivability and introduce liveability (maximum safe, sustained activity) under current and future climates. Our physiology-based survival limits show a vast underestimation of risks by the 35 °C Tw model in hot-dry conditions. Updated survivability limits correspond to Tw~25.8-34.1 °C (young) and ~21.9-33.7 °C (old)-0.9-13.1 °C lower than Tw = 35 °C. For older female adults, estimates are ~7.2-13.1 °C lower than 35 °C in dry conditions. Liveability declines with sun exposure and humidity, yet most dramatically with age (2.5-3.0 METs lower for older adults). Reductions in safe activity for younger and older adults between the present and future indicate a stronger impact from aging than warming.

BackgroundAs atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations continue to rise, temperature and humidity will increase further, causing potentially dire increases in human heat stress. On physiological and biophysical grounds, exposure to higher levels of humidity should worsen heat stress by decreasing sweat evaporation. However, population-scale epidemiological studies of heat exposure and response often do not detect associations between high levels of humidity and heat-related mortality or morbidity. These divergent, disciplinary views regarding the role of humidity in heat-related health risks limit confidence in selecting which interventions are effective in reducing health impacts and in projecting future heat-related health risks.ObjectivesVia our multidisciplinary perspective we seek to a) reconcile the competing realities concerning the role of humidity in heat-related health impacts and b) help ensure robust projections of heat-related health risks with climate change. These objectives are critical pathways to identify and communicate effective approaches to cope with present and future heat challenges.DiscussionWe hypothesize six key reasons epidemiological studies have found little impact of humidity on heat-health outcomes: a) At high temperatures, there may be limited influence of humidity on the health conditions that cause most heat-related deaths (i.e., cardiovascular collapse); b) epidemiological data sets have limited spatial extent, a bias toward extratropical (i.e., cooler and less humid), high-income nations, and tend to exist in places where temporal variations in temperature and humidity are positively correlated; c) analyses focus on older, vulnerable populations with sweating, and thus evaporative, impairments that may be further aggravated by dehydration; d) extremely high levels of temperature and humidity (seldom seen in the historical record) are necessary for humidity to substantially impact heat strain of sedentary individuals; e) relationships between temperature and humidity are improperly considered when interpreting epidemiological model results; and f) sub-daily meteorological phenomena, such as rain, occur at high temperatures and humidity, and may bias epidemiological studies based on daily data. Future research must robustly test these hypotheses to advance methods for more accurate incorporation of humidity in estimating heat-related health outcomes under present and projected future climates. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11807.

Currently, there is an extensive literature examining heat impacts on labor productivity and health, as well as a recent surge in research around COVID-19. However, to our knowledge, no research to date examines the dual burden of COVID-19 and extreme heat on labor productivity and laborers' health and livelihoods. To close this research gap and shed light on a critical health and livelihood issue affecting a vulnerable population, we urge researchers to study the two topics in tandem. Because farmworkers have a high incidence of COVID-19 infections and a low rate of inoculation, they will be among those who suffer most from this dual burden. In this article, we discuss impacts from extreme heat and COVID-19 on farm laborers. We provide examples from the literature and a conceptual framework showing the bi-directional nature of heat impacts on COVID-19 and vice versa. We conclude with questions for further research and with specific policy recommendations to alleviate this dual burden. If implemented, these policies would enhance the wellbeing of farmworkers through improved unemployment benefits, updated regulations, and consistent implementation of outdoor labor regulations. Additionally, policies for farmworker-related health needs and cultural aspects of policy implementation and farmworker outreach are needed. These and related policies could potentially reduce the dual burden of COVID-19 and extreme heat impacts while future research explores their relative cost-effectiveness.

Enhanced intestinal permeability is a pervasive issue in modern medicine, with implications demonstrably associated with significant health consequences such as sepsis, multiorgan failure, and death. Key issues involve the trigger mechanisms that could compromise intestinal integrity and increase local permeability allowing the passage of larger, potentially dangerous molecules. Heat stress, whether exertional or environmental, may modulate intestinal permeability and begs interesting questions in the context of global climate change, increasing population vulnerabilities, and public health. Emerging evidence indicates that intestinal leakage of digestive enzymes and associated cell dysfunctions--a process referred to as autodigestion--may play a critical role in systemic physiological damage within the body. This increased permeability is exacerbated in the presence of elevated core temperatures. We employed Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling methods to analyze the relationship between heat stress and the nascent theory of autodigestion in a systematic, quantifiable, and unbiased manner. From a corpus of 11,233 scientific articles across four relevant scientific journals (Gut, Shock, Temperature, Gastroenterology), it was found that over 1,000 documents expressed a relationship between intestine, enhanced permeability, core temperature, and heat stress. The association has grown stronger in recent years, as heat stress and potential autodigestion are investigated in tandem, yet still by a limited number of specific research studies. Such findings justify the design of future studies to critically test novel interventions against digestive enzymes permeating the intestinal tract, especially the small intestine.

Background: Extreme heat and air pollution are important human health concerns; exposure can affect mental and physical well-being, particularly during periods of co-occurrence. Yet, the impacts on people are largely determined by underlying health conditions, coupled with the length and intensity of exposure. Preexisting adverse health conditions and prolonged exposure times are more common for people experiencing homelessness, particularly those with intersectional identity characteristics (e.g., disease, ability, age, etc.). Partially due to methodological limitations, such as data scarcity, there is a lack of research at the intersection of this at-risk population within the climate-health domain. Objectives: We have three distinct objectives throughout this article: a) to advance critical discussions around the state of concurrent high heat and air pollution exposure research as it relates to people experiencing homelessness; b) to assert the importance of heat and air pollution exposure research among a highly vulnerable, too-often homogenized population--people experiencing homelessness; and c) to underline challenges in this area of study while presenting potential ways to address such shortcomings. Discussion: The health insights from concurrent air pollution and heat exposure studies are consequential when studying unhoused communities who are already overexposed to harmful environmental conditions. Without holistic data sets and more advanced methods to study concurrent exposures, appropriate and targeted prevention and intervention strategies cannot be developed to protect this at-risk population. We highlight that a) concurrent high heat and air pollution exposure research among people experiencing homelessness is significantly underdeveloped considering the pressing human health implications; b) the severity of physiological responses elicited by high heat and air pollution are predicated on exposure intensity and time, and thus people without means of seeking climate-controlled shelter are most at risk; and c) collaboration among transdisciplinary teams is needed to resolve data resolution issues and enable targeted prevention and intervention strategies. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13402, Introduction Extreme heat and air pollution exposures are well-known risks to human health globally. (1,2) Together or separately, these environmental exposures can increase health risks and negatively impact overall well-being, [...]

Extreme heat adversely affects human health, productivity, and well-being, with more frequent and intense heatwaves projected to increase exposures. However, current risk projections oversimplify critical inter-individual factors of human thermoregulation, resulting in unreliable and unrealistic estimates of future adverse health outcomes.

BACKGROUND:Extreme heat is often associated with elevated levels of human mortality, particularly across the mid-latitudes. Los Angeles, CA exhibits a unique, highly variable winter climate, with brief periods of intense heat caused by downsloping winds commonly known as Santa Ana winds. The goal is to determine if Los Angeles County is susceptible to heat-related mortality during the winter season. This is the first study to specifically evaluate heat-related mortality during the winter for a U.S. city. METHODS:Utilizing the Spatial Synoptic Classification system in Los Angeles County from 1979 through 2010, we first relate daily human mortality to synoptic air mass type during the winter season (December, January, February) using Welch's t-tests. However, this methodology is only somewhat effective at controlling for important inter- and intra-annual trends in human mortality unrelated to heat such as influenza outbreaks. As a result, we use distributed lag nonlinear modeling (DLNM) to evaluate if the relative risk of human mortality increases during higher temperatures in Los Angeles, as the DLNM is more effective at controlling for variability at multiple temporal scales within the human mortality dataset. RESULTS:Significantly higher human mortality is uncovered in winter when dry tropical air is present in Los Angeles, particularly among those 65 years and older (p

OBJECTIVES:To provide a primer on the physical characteristics of heat from a biometeorological perspective for those interested in the epidemiology of extreme heat. STUDY DESIGN:A literature search design was used. METHODS:A review of the concepts of heat, heat stress and human heat balance was conducted using Web of Sciences, Scopus and PubMed. RESULTS:Heat, as recognised in the field of human biometeorology, is a complex phenomenon resulting from the synergistic effects of air temperature, humidity and ventilation levels, radiation loads and metabolic activity. Heat should therefore not be conflated with high temperatures. A range of empirical, direct and rational heat stress indices have been developed to assess heat stress. CONCLUSION:The conceptualisation of heat stress is best described with reference to the human heat balance which describes the various avenues for heat gain to and heat loss from the body. Air temperature alone is seldom the reason for heat stress and thus heat-related health effects.

The complex nature of air pollution in urban areas prevents traditional monitoring techniques from obtaining measurements representative of true human exposure. The current study assessed the capability of low-cost mobile monitors to acquire useful data in a city without a monitoring network in place (Lubbock, Texas) using a bicycle platform. The monitoring campaign resulted in 30 days of data along a 13.4 km fixed concentric route. Due to high sensitivities to airflow, the apparent wind velocity was accounted for throughout the route. The data were also normalized into percentiles in order to visualize spatial patterns. The highest estimated pollution levels were located near frequently busy intersections and roads; however, sensor issues resulted in lower confidence. Additional research is needed concerning the appropriate use of low-cost metal oxide sensors for citizen science applications, as measurements can be misleading if the user is unaware of sensors specifications. The simultaneous use of several low-cost mobile platforms, rather than a single platform, as well as the use of high-end cases, are recommended to create a more robust spatial analysis. The issues addressed from this research are important to understand for accurate and beneficial application of low-cost gaseous monitors for citizen science.

The first decade of the twenty-first century saw remarkable technological advancements for use in biometeorology. These emerging technologies have allowed for the collection of new data and have further emphasized the need for specific and/or changing systems for efficient data management, data processing, and advanced representations of new data through digital information management systems. This short communication provides an overview of new hardware and software technologies that support biometeorologists in representing and understanding the influence of atmospheric processes on living organisms.

BackgroundEnvironmental heat exposure is a public health concern. The impacts of environmental heat on mortality and morbidity at the population scale are well documented, but little is known about specific exposures that individuals experience.ObjectivesThe first objective of this work was to catalyze discussion of the role of personal heat exposure information in research and risk assessment. The second objective was to provide guidance regarding the operationalization of personal heat exposure research methods.DiscussionWe define personal heat exposure as realized contact between a person and an indoor or outdoor environment that poses a risk of increases in body core temperature and/or perceived discomfort. Personal heat exposure can be measured directly with wearable monitors or estimated indirectly through the combination of time-activity and meteorological data sets. Complementary information to understand individual-scale drivers of behavior, susceptibility, and health and comfort outcomes can be collected from additional monitors, surveys, interviews, ethnographic approaches, and additional social and health data sets. Personal exposure research can help reveal the extent of exposure misclassification that occurs when individual exposure to heat is estimated using ambient temperature measured at fixed sites and can provide insights for epidemiological risk assessment concerning extreme heat.ConclusionsPersonal heat exposure research provides more valid and precise insights into how often people encounter heat conditions and when, where, to whom, and why these encounters occur. Published literature on personal heat exposure is limited to date, but existing studies point to opportunities to inform public health practice regarding extreme heat, particularly where fine-scale precision is needed to reduce health consequences of heat exposure. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP556.

Urban residents are at risk of health-related illness during extreme heat events but the dangers are not equal in all parts of a city. Previous studies have found a relationship between physical characteristics of neighborhoods and the number of emergency medical response (EMR) calls. We used a human energy budget model to test the effects of landscape modifications that are designed to cool the environment on the expected number of EMR calls in two neighborhoods in Toronto, Canada during extreme heat events. The cooling design strategies reduced the energy overload on people by approximately 20-30 W m-2, resulting in an estimated 40-50% reduction in heat-related ambulance calls. These findings advance current understanding of the relationship between the urban landscape and human health and suggest straightforward design strategies to positively influence urban heat-health.

Childhood exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is a major risk factor for the development of melanoma later in life. However, it is challenging to accurately determine personal outdoor exposure to UVR, specifically erythemally weighted UVR (UVEry ), due to technological constraints, variable time-activity patterns, and the influence of outdoor environmental design. To address this challenge, this study utilized mobile and stationary techniques to examine the UVEry exposures of 14 children in a schoolyard in Lubbock, TX, in spring 2016. The aims of the study were to examine the influence of artificial shade on personal UVEry exposures and to assess full sun exposure ratios (ERs) within the same playground microenvironment. On average, personal wrist dosimeters worn during play in the sun measured 18% of the total onsite UVEry measured by a stationary UV pyranometer. Shade was found to significantly reduce the personal UVEry exposures by 55%, UVB280-315 nm exposures by 91%, and the overall solar radiation by 84%. Substantial benefits can be garnered through focused design of children's recreational space to utilize shade-both natural and artificial-to reduce UVR exposures during play, and to extend safe outdoor stays. Finally, although the wrist is a practical location for a dosimeter, it often underestimates full exposures, particularly during physical activity.

BackgroundTraditional approaches for measuring air quality based on fixed measurements are inadequate for personal exposure monitoring. To combat this issue, the use of small, portable gas-sensing air pollution monitoring technologies is increasing, with researchers and individuals employing portable and mobile methods to obtain more spatially and temporally representative air pollution data. However, many commercially available options are built for various applications and based on different technologies, assumptions, and limitations. A review of the monitor characteristics of small, gaseous monitors is missing from current scientific literature.PurposeA state-of-the-art review of small, portable monitors that measure ambient gaseous outdoor pollutants was developed to address broad trends during the last 5-10 years, and to help future experimenters interested in studying gaseous air pollutants choose monitors appropriate for their application and sampling needs.MethodsTrends in small, portable gaseous air pollution monitor uses and technologies were first identified and discussed in a review of literature. Next, searches of online databases were performed for articles containing specific information related to performance, characteristics, and use of such monitors that measure one or more of three criteria gaseous air pollutants: ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide. All data were summarized into reference tables for comparison between applications, physical features, sensing capabilities, and costs of the devices.ResultsRecent portable monitoring trends are strongly related to associated applications and audiences. Fundamental research requires monitors with the best individual performance, and thus the highest cost technology. Monitor networking favors real-time capabilities and moderate cost for greater reproduction. Citizen science and crowdsourcing applications allow for lower-cost components; however important strengths and limitations for each application must be addressed or acknowledged for the given use.

Here we present, for the first time, a glossary of biometeorological terms. The glossary aims to address the need for a reliable source of biometeorological definitions, thereby facilitating communication and mutual understanding in this rapidly expanding field. A total of 171 terms are defined, with reference to 234 citations. It is anticipated that the glossary will be revisited in coming years, updating terms and adding new terms, as appropriate. The glossary is intended to provide a useful resource to the biometeorology community, and to this end, readers are encouraged to contact the lead author to suggest additional terms for inclusion in later versions of the glossary as a result of new and emerging developments in the field.

Fine-scale personal heat exposure (PHE) information can help prevent or minimize weather-related deaths, illnesses, and reduced work productivity. Common methods to estimate heat risk do not simultaneously account for the intensity, frequency, and duration of thermal exposures, nor do they include inter-individual factors that modify physiological response. This study demonstrates new whole-body net thermal load estimations to link PHE to heat stress and strain over time. We apply a human-environment heat exchange model to examine how time-varying net thermal loads differ across climate contexts, personal attributes, and spatiotemporal scales. First, we investigate summertime climatic PHE impacts for three US cities: Phoenix, Miami, and New York. Second, we model body morphology and acclimatization for three profiles (middle-aged male/female; female >65 years). Finally, we quantify model sensitivity using representative data at synoptic and micro-scales. For all cases, we compare required and potential evaporative heat losses that can lead to dangerous thermal exposures based on (un)compensable heat stress. Results reveal misclassifications in heat stress or strain due to incomplete environmental data and assumed equivalent physiology and activities between people. Heat strain is most poorly represented by PHE alone for the elderly, non-acclimatized, those engaged in strenuous activities, and when negating solar radiation. Moreover, humid versus dry heat across climates elicits distinct thermal responses from the body. We outline criteria for inclusive PHE evaluations connecting heat exposure, stress, and strain while using physiological-based methods to avoid misclassifications. This work underlines the value of moving from "one-size-fits-all" thermal indices to "fit-for-purpose" approaches using personalized information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]