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Children and young people have different challenges as they progress in their school development, one of them is the maintenance of high ranks in academic performance, music as a tool to improve sensory skills has been shown to have a positive influence when combined with In the educational field, the present research, based on this premise, set itself the objective of determining the academic performance of children and young people with musical aptitudes belonging to the Caldas Symphonic Bands Program. For this purpose, a methodology with a quantitative approach and a non-experimental transactional correlation design was used. Out of a total of 1,926, a sample was selected by conglomerates in a simple stage, of 482 instrumentalists (282 men and 200 women). For the rest, the Seashore Music Skills Test was chosen for the assessment of musical aptitudes, whose most relevant results showed that the correlations among all the variables that evaluate the musical aptitudes are all positive, besides being all significant with a significance of 5%. The highest is between the time and tonal memory (0.4991), while the most incorrect is between the intensity and timbre (0.1478). In summary, it could be determined that women present better grades in Spanish and mathematics than men, while the opposite occurs with respect to tonal memory

Behavioral and neuropsychological studies have suggested that tonal and verbal short‐term memory are supported by specialized neural networks. To date however, neuroimaging investigations have failed to confirm this hypothesis. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis of distinct neural resources for tonal and verbal memory by comparing typical nonmusician listeners to individuals with congenital amusia, who exhibit pitch memory impairments with preserved verbal memory. During fMRI, amusics and matched controls performed delayed‐match‐to‐sample tasks with tones and words and perceptual control tasks with the same stimuli. For tonal maintenance, amusics showed decreased activity in the right auditory cortex, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and dorso‐lateral‐prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Moreover, they exhibited reduced right‐lateralized functional connectivity between the auditory cortex and the IFG during tonal encoding and between the IFG and the DLPFC during tonal maintenance. In contrasts, amusics showed no difference compared with the controls for verbal memory, with activation in the left IFG and left fronto‐temporal connectivity. Critically, we observed a group‐by‐material interaction in right fronto‐temporal regions: while amusics recruited these regions less strongly for tonal memory than verbal memory, control participants showed the reversed pattern (tonal > verbal). By benefitting from the rare condition of amusia, our findings suggest specialized cortical systems for tonal and verbal short‐term memory in the human brain.

The present functional magnetic resonance imaging study investigates the neural substrates of relative pitch. Musicians and nonmusicians performed 2 same/different discrimination tasks (simple and transposed melody) that differed in whether they required precise encoding and comparison of relative pitch structure, along with 2 control tasks (rhythm and phoneme). The transposed melody task involved a musical transposition of 4 semitones between the target and comparison patterns, requiring listeners to use interval information rather than the absolute value of the individual pitches. Contrasting the transposed melody to the simple melody condition revealed greater activation in the cortex within the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) bilaterally; control tasks did not elicit significant activity in the IPS. Moreover, a whole-brain voxel-wise regression analysis of brain oxygenation level-dependent signal showed that activity within the right IPS predicted task performance for both musicians and nonmusicians specifically in the transposed melody condition. Successful performance of the transposed melody task requires encoding and comparison of auditory patterns having different tonal reference points-thus simple tonal memory is not sufficient. Our results point to a role for the IPS in transforming high-level auditory information. We suggest that this area may support a general capacity for transformation and comparison of systematically related stimulus attributes.

La investigación presenta el trabajo realizado en el ámbito de la mejora de la memoria tonal en estudiantes de educación secundaria, y plantea demostrar la importancia de la educación musical en esta etapa. El objetivo principal es constatar la capacidad para mejorar los procesos cognitivos básicos del ser humano a través de la enseñanza de la música, contribuyendo a optimizar las aptitudes musicales, entre las que se incluye la memoria tonal. Los primeros estudios sobre psicología de la música surgen con Carl E. Seashore a principios del s. XX, y proponen estudiar la influencia de la música en el ser humano, diseñando para ello una prueba musical con la finalidad de detectar personas con aptitudes musicales, creando así el Test de Aptitudes Musicales en 1939 y cubriendo así, una necesidad de medición de las aptitudes. El contenido de esta comunicación aborda el marco teórico necesario para enmarcar, comprender y desarrollar el trabajo experimental realizado. Se ha efectuado una revisión de las aportaciones más relevantes de la psicología aplicada a la música: la psicología cognitiva, la psicología de la memoria y las aptitudes musicales; además analizamos el test utilizado, el test de Aptitudes Musicales de Seashore que contiene pruebas para medir seis variables: tono, intensidad, ritmo, tiempo, timbre y memoria tonal. En esta última variable nos centraremos más detenidamente para demostrar como la enseñanza musical en la etapa secundaria puede mejorar la memoria tonal. En la parte experimental se presenta la justificación, los objetivos e hipótesis planteadas, así como la metodología seguida en la investigación. Para elaborar el trabajo empírico hemos aplicado el Test mencionado a alumnado de 2º de ESO. Durante el procedimiento se ha suministrado al principio y al final del curso escolar, y se ha evaluado si existen resultados significativos después de la intervención realizada. The research presents the work done in the field of improving the tonal memory in high school students, and sets out to demonstrate the importance of music education in secondary education. The main objective is to verify the ability to enhance the human being’s basic cognitive processes through the teaching of music, helping to optimize the musical aptitude, including the tonal memory. The first studies on music psychology was done by Carl E. Seashore at the beginning of the 20th century, and they intend to explore the influence of music on human beings, designing a musical test in order to detect people with musical skills, thus creating the Musical Aptitude Test in 1939 and meeting a need in that way for measurement skills. The content of this communication addresses the need to frame, understand and develop the theoretical framework experimental work. A review of the most important contributions of applied psychology to music has been carried at: cognitive psychology, the psychology of memory and musical skills; we have also analyzed the test used, Seashore’s musical aptitude test while contains tests to measure six variables: tone, intensity, rhythm, tempo, timbre and tonal memory. In this last variable we focus more closely to demonstrate how music education at the secondary stage can improve the tonal memory. In the experimental part, the reasons, objectives, hypothesis and the methodology used in the research are presented. We have applied the test referred to students of 2nd ESO. To develop empirical work whether there are significant results after the intervention. Finally, the research has been supplied at the beginning and end of the school year and it has also been evaluated whether there are significant results after the intervention.

Children with developmental speech disorders may have additional deficits in speech perception and/or short-term memory. To determine whether these are only transient developmental delays that can accompany the disorder in childhood or persist as part of the speech disorder, adults with a persistent familial speech disorder were tested on speech perception and short-term memory. Nine adults with a persistent familial developmental speech disorder without language impairment were compared with 20 controls on tasks requiring the discrimination of fine acoustic cues for word identification and on measures of verbal and nonverbal short-term memory. Significant group differences were found in the slopes of the discrimination curves for first formant transitions for word identification with stop gaps of 40 and 20 ms with effect sizes of 1.60 and 1.56. Significant group differences also occurred on tests of nonverbal rhythm and tonal memory, and verbal short-term memory with effect sizes of 2.38, 1.56, and 1.73. No group differences occurred in the use of stop gap durations for word identification. Because frequency-based speech perception and short-term verbal and nonverbal memory deficits both persisted into adulthood in the speech-impaired adults, these deficits may be involved in the persistence of speech disorders without language impairment.

The purpose of this investigation was to acquire data regarding the validity of reproduction tonal memory tests by examining the relationships between performances on an existing reproduction tonal memory test and performances on several recognition tonal memory tests. Analysis of 210 fifth- through twelfth-grade students' scores on one reproduction test and four recognition tests of tonal memory revealed moderate relationships (r = .47 to .66) between the two types of tests. Stepwise multiple regression revealed a moderately strong predictive relationship between a combination of three recognition measures and the reproduction test (R = .73, R2 = .53). Little change was noted in the relationship between the two types of tests with regard to singing experience. Although the reproduction tonal memory test was tentatively deemed a valid measure, the following additional research and analysis was suggested: (a) continued consideration of gender, ability, and total musical experience as they affect overall validity, and (b) the creation of a more reliable recognition test alternative.

We evaluated the efficiency, precision, and concurrent validity of results obtained from adaptive and fired-item music listening tests in three studies: (a) a computer simulation study in which each of 2,200 simulees completed a computerized adaptive tonal memory test, a computerized fired-item tonal memory test constructed from items in the adaptive test pool and two standardized group-administered tonal memory tests; (b) a live testing study in which each of 204 examinees took the computerized adaptive test and the standardized tests; and (c) a live testing study in which randomly equivalent groups took either the computerized adaptive test (n = 86) or the computerized fired-item test (n = 86). The adaptive music test required 50% to 93% fewer items to match the reliability and concurrent validity of the fired-item tests, and it yielded higher levels of reliability and concurrent validity than the fired-item tests when test length was held constant. These findings suggest that computerized adaptive tests, which typically have been limited to visually produced items, may also be well suited for measuring skills that require aurally produced items.

The purpose of this three-phase investigation was to develop and evaluate a computerized adaptive test of tonal memory. In the first phase, characteristics of commercially available tonal memory tests (instrument timbre, rhythmic complexity, tonality) were systematically varied and compared to determine the types of items most likely to yield reliable and valid scores. Results from ANOVA, factor-analytic, correlation, and regression analyses indicated that synthesizer-produced, varied-rhythm tonal and atonal melodies of four to nine notes would provide reliable and concurrently valid scores over a wide range of ability levels. In the second phase, the adaptive test was constructed, and its measurement precision and efficiency were evaluated in a series of computer-simulation analyses. Results showed that the adaptive test required 5 to 11 items to yield reliabilities from .80 to .90, and 80% fewer items to surpass the reliability of the Seashore Tonal Memory Test. In the final phase, the adaptive test was field-tested on the PLATO computer system. In line with the computer-simulation findings, the adaptive test required an average of 6.05, 8.55, and 11.60 items to reach reliabilities of .80, .85, and .90, respectively.

The main purposes of this study were to replicate, validate, and extend measures of sensitivity to musical pitch and to determine whether performance on tests of tonal structure and pitch memory was related to, or dissociated from, performance on tests of nonmusical cognitive skills -- standardized tests of cognitive abstraction, vocabulary, and memory for digits and nonrepresentational figures. Factor analyses of data from 100 neurologically intact participants revealed a dissociation between music and nonmusic variables, both for the full data set and a set for which the possible contribution of levels of music training was statistically removed. A neurologically impaired participant, C.N., scored within the range of matched controls on nonmusic tests but much lower than controls on music tests. The study provides further evidence of a functional specificity for musical pitch abilities. How various types of cognitive abilities are related, and further, how musical abilities are related to other abilities are questions with both a long history and current importance in cognitive psychology and the psychology of music. Music listening and performance engage a variety of processing levels - from elementary sensory-motor encoding to higher-level relational and symbolic representations. Music perception and cognition invite comparisons to other perceptual and cognitive processes, both in terms of commonalities and of differences. For example, both music and speech are highly structured forms of communication processed by the auditory system. It has been suggested that precocious abilities in music and speech emerge from common origins (e.g., Davidson & Scripp, 1988; Lynch, Short, & Chua, 1995; Trehub & Trainor, 1993). Warren (1993) remarks that "our use of speech and our production and enjoyment of music are based on an elaboration of global organizational skills possessed by our prelinguistic ancestors" (p. 64). Bigand (1993) comments on general cognitive constraints influencing not only hierarchical organization in music and speech but symbolic processing in general. However, the ongoing search for and description of functional music modules (e.g., Deliege, 1995) illustrates concern for the differentiation of musical abilities from one another and from other cognitive abilities. Distinct neurological processes revealed by brain electrical activity (e.g., Besson, 1997), cerebral blood flow patterns measured with positron emission tomography (e.g., Zatorre, Evans, & Meyer, 1994; Zatorre, Halpern, Perry, Meyer, & Evans, 1996), and patterns of dissociation found in neurologically compromised individuals (e.g., Patel & Peretz, 1997) indicate mental operations specific to the domain of music. Taken together, therefore, accounts of both integration and differentiation have been proposed. A further illustration, one of the earliest and most pertinent to the present study, concerns the relation of music and intelligence. Music and intelligence Earlier in this century, Spearman (1904, 1927) concluded that music shared the common g or general function with all other branches of intellectual activity, but allowed that a specific music factor s was operating in its own right. Within the next few decades, researchers identified a music group factor beyond g, but as Vernon (1950) noted, the factor was poor in reliability. Moreover, no consistent sub-grouping of musical factors such as pitch, rhythm, and tonal memory was found. Subsequent studies, however, continued to provide encouragement for the notion that musical abilities were separable from general intelligence. Shuter-Dyson and Gabriel (1981) summarized a large number of studies (involving some 16,000 participants) that examined the relations between intelligence and musical abilities as measured by standard musical aptitude tests assessing a wide variety of musical skills. All reported correlations, though positive, were low. …

✓ It has been widely accepted that the right temporal lobe plays a major role in the processing of music. One of the main lines of evidence was derived from Milner's study, published in 1962, which reported that right temporal lobectomy led to a decline in patient scores on four of the six subtests (Tonal Memory, Timbre, Loudness, and Time subtests) of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents. That finding had led some surgeons and patients to hesitate in choosing right temporal lobectomy as a treatment for intractable epilepsy. The authors examined performance on the Seashore Measures before and after operations in 20 patients with right temporal lobectomy and nine patients with left temporal lobectomy. No disturbances in the Seashore Measures were detected after temporal lobectomy on either side. The extent of these temporal lobectomies was smaller than that of the temporal lobectomies in Milner's study, as measured along the sylvian fissure (1.5–4 cm; mean 2.7 cm, standard deviation (SD) 0.92 cm) and the base of the temporal lobe (3.5–5.5 cm; mean 4.7 cm, SD 0.63 cm). These findings indicate that the region resected on right temporal lobectomy in the present study is not essential for basic musical processing.

The ability to identify and reproduce sounds of specific frequencies, typically called ‘‘perfect pitch,’’ is remarkable and uncommon. Whether this skill is learned early in life or inherited has been a matter of great controversy. Further, a substantial literature suggests that ‘‘perfect pitch’’ may be heterogeneous. Previously, we proposed a model to account for heterogeneity. The model subdivides individuals capable of naming notes accurately into two groups: possessors of true absolute pitch (AP), who automatically encode the frequency of all tonal stimuli, precategorically and independent of their source; and possessors of heightened tonal memory (HTM), who identify tones by comparing them to a memorized tonal template. The ability of individuals with HTM to identify tonal stimuli should depend strongly on the tones’ acoustical properties, such as timbre or chroma. Three experiments sought to test this hypothesis directly. Individuals claiming ‘‘perfect pitch’’ were recruited and initially classified as having AP or HTM. Consistent with the model, the two groups differed significantly in their sensitivity to the targets’ timbre, chroma, and tonal context, suggesting that they may use different mechanisms to identify tonal stimuli. The model may help reconcile the long‐standing controversy between early learning and genetic theories of ‘‘perfect pitch.’’

Patients with Huntington's Disease (HD) who were without dementia were compared to unilateral stroke patients and controls as previously reported in 1983, to discover if they had a prosodic defect. Subjects were presented tape-recorded speech filtered sentences and asked to indicate the tone of voice as happy, sad or angry (affective prosody), or as a question, command or statement (propositional prosody). HD patients were impaired in comprehension of both types of prosody compared to controls but were not different from stroke patients. A second study compared early HD patients with at-risk siblings and spouse controls on comprehension of affective and propositional prosody, discrimination of both types of prosody, rhythm discrimination and tonal memory (Seashore tests). HD patients were impaired in both comprehension and discrimination of all types of prosody. HD patients were less accurate than at-risk patients on the tonal memory task but not on the rhythm discrimination task. These findings suggest compromise in ability to understand the more subtle prosodic aspects of communication which may contribute to social impairment of HD patients very early in the course of the disease.

The development of pitch perception and memory in language and music among 6‐ to 15‐year‐old Otomi‐speaking children of either sex and Zapotec‐speaking children of the same age and of either sex was studied. These languages are characterized by the use of lexical tones. For the analysis of musical abilities, Bentley’s Tests of Pitch Discrimination and of Tonal Memory were employed; for that of language abilities, special tests were devised that measured the perception and memory of tonal changes in either Otomi or Zapotec words. Results showed that development of abilities in music in Otomi‐speaking children followed a course that was parallel to, although significantly below, that obtained by Bentley in his original study of 1966 in England. In the Otomi‐speaking group, the course of development of abilities in language was above that of those in music. On the other hand, the same tests in Zapotec‐speaking children provided data that were very irregular and further below the average obtained by the Otomi‐speaking children. Interestingly, the application of Raven’s Progressive Matrices and Koppitz’s Test of Human Figure Drawings to these two groups of subjects indicated that, generally, Zapotec‐speaking children had a higher cognitive level than Otomi‐speaking children. [Work supported by Fondo de Neurologia, Hospital Infantil de Mexico.]

discover the unique culture of another people. The gamelan was from Java, Indonesia. The University was UCLA. Subsequently, similar ensembles came from many parts of Southeast Asia and the Philippines to serve universities world-wide as primary resources in the field of ethnomusicology. That period of 46 years I have titled "Ethnomusicology's Bronze Age."' Let me broaden my first statement by adding one made 30 years ago. ... [T]he arts are a kind of camera obscura of society. Like that optical wonder, they reduce the whole of its identity-sanctions and values, sacred and secular beliefs and customs-to a faithful reflection in miniature, in living colors" (Hood 1971:xviii). I want to show that usage of bronze ensembles can be enhanced by several things in Y2K: 1) by learning to hear the unique sounds of a particular bronze ensemble (N.B. the key words "unique" and "particular"); 2) by developing a better approach to sonic analysis in the laboratory; and 3) by addressing problems of tonal memory retained from learning to play an instrument or to sing or even to speak. Deeply imbedded tonal memory can affect efforts in learning to play or sing or speak in an unfamiliar idiom.

This study investigated the effects of differing loudness levels on discrimination of pitch, rhythm, duration, loudness, timbre, and tonal memory. Subjects were 101 university undergraduates, and comparisons were made for music versus nonmusic majors, males versus females, and those with exposure versus nonexposure to loud sounds. Analysis of variance procedures revealed the significant influence of varying loudness levels on rhythm, duration, loudness, and timbre discriminations. Music and nonmusic majors responded similarly, though several interactions were noted. No major differences appeared concerning the sex variable nor the exposure to loudness grouping; however, the nonexposure subjects fared more favorably in a preponderance of mean data comparisons (15 of 21)— a trend most marked among the nonmusic majors. Implications were that less intense presentation levels should be employed to enhance timbre discriminations, louder presentation levels to enhance perception and discrimination of loudness or dynamic variation. Also noted was the need to view cautiously those test norms and results acquired without rigorous control of loudness presentation levels.

A battery of auditory tests was given under the conditions of monaural and binaural presentation. The results indicated that both primary and second-order factors were similar to those found earlier with the same tests. The hierarchical solu tion also indicated that most of the differences be tween the conditions of presentation occurred at the lowest order of factoring. Differences between the means showed the same trends as those reported in the literature on hemispheric specialization. Ob tained first-order factors were interpreted as Tonal Memory, Speech Perception Under Distraction/Dis tortion, and Maintaining and Judging Rhythm, all representing a measure of General Auditory Func tion. In addition, a broad first-order factor of Fluid Intelligence was identified along with Temporal Tracking, representing an interesting new com ponent. Although General Auditory Function is a broad perceptual factor akin to General Visualiza tion, it differs from the latter in an important way. It is suggested that competition between the audi tory messages may be typical of General Auditory Function but that the hemispheric localization is not.

IN 1919 THE FIRST standardized group musical aptitude test, the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent} was published. This battery, in its latest revised form (Seashore, 1960), is comprised of six subtests which measure basic auditory sensory discrimination. According to the test author (Seashore, 1938), "everything that is rendered as music or heard as music may be expressed in terms of the concepts of the sound wave." Pitch, Loudness, Rhythm, Time, Timbre} and Tonal Memory are tested by requiring subjects to compare a pair or short series of tones which are produced on a beat-frequency oscillator (except on the Tonal Memory subtest). Because these subtests are supposedly void of the interaction of melody, rhythm, and musical expression, music psychologists (Mursell, 1937) have described and condemned the battery as being "atomistic" and unmusically-oriented. Specifically, the "omnibus" group, antagonists of the Seashore approach, believe that musicality consists of more than just the ability to discriminate audio-acoustical differences in the sound wave. Further, these music psychologists, many of whom are European (Lowery, 1940; and Mainwaring, 1947), argue that musical aptitude is not compnsed of separate abilities, but rather, that it is one general ability. They contend that a musical instrument should be used as the medium for stating music test items and that the content of each item should, in and of itself, have "musical meaning." The comparatively new Musical Aptitude Profile (Gordon, 1965) has been described as an eclectic test because both preference and nonpreference subtests constitute the test battery and also because, while the content of the test items is musical and is performed by professional musicians, the battery does, nevertheless, provide for the evaluation of seven postulated dimensions of musical aptitude. The musical dimensions measured by this standardized group test are classiSed into three main divisions: Tonal Imagery, Rhythm Imagery, and Musical Sensitivity. Two separate subtests are provided for each of the nonpreference tests: Melody and Harmony for Tonal Imagery, and Tempo and Meter for

The Measures of lMusical Abilities, a musical aptitude test battery designed especially for use with children of elementary school age, was first published in 1966. It was designed and developed by Arnold Bentley at the University of Reading, England, and consists of four separate tests: Pitch Discrimination, Tonal Memory, Chord Analysis, and Rhythmic Memory. The battery does not purport to measure all of the attributes that may comprise musical aptitude, but rather is designed to deal only with "the investigation of such abilities as are basic and essential to progress in active music-makirlg as vocalist and instrumentalist-i.e., to the performance of music.''l Bentley presents the following assumptions as the rationale upon which the tests are based: 1. The most elemental form of music is the melodic phrase, or figure, which comprises tonal configurations within a rhythmic framework. 2. Apprehension (perception) of melody is impossible without the ability to recall, in detail, sounds that have already been heard, and this depends upon the ability to apprehend the constituent factors of melody-i.e., pitch and time. 3. Finer than semitone pitch discrimination is essential in singing and in all instrumental playing, except at the keyboard, in order to achieve the necessary good intonation. 4. Concurrent sounds (chords) are not fundamental to melody; therefore, it is necessary for the singer or monophonic instrumen

ciently measure musical aptitude. Both groups, however, have been critical of the current status of musical aptitude testing. In number, scope, and technical refinements the testing of aptitude in music has lagged far behind other aptitude tests.1 An examination of currently published aptitude tests indicates that the constructors of those tests, in general, agree that musical aptitude can best be assessed by measuring such functions as the sense of pitch, the sense of tonal memory, the sense of rhythm, the sense of time, and the sense of intensity. Anastasi has stated: "The content

DURING THE LAST forty-five years attempts have been made to devise tests of musical talent which have been used with varying degrees of success. These include such standardized music tests as those developed by Seashore (8), Mosher (6), Gildersleeve (2), and Kwalwasser-Dykema (4). Only a few ewerimental studies, such as that by Ottmann (7), have been made coincident with the construction of these tests. Farnsworth ( 1 ) has attempted to write about musical talent and growth based upon empirical evidence. Discussions concerning musical characteristics, however, are frequently based upon esperience or opinion or both. Although attempts to define musicianship have not succeeded, mally of the skills which comprise it are wellknown. Wheelwright (10) gave a definition of musicianship as related to reading music. Sight-reading has always been considered an important part of good musicianship, although teachers present a wide variance in both attention and approach to its development. Although research is needed concenling much of the music-learning process, investigation of the unknown role of the ear may be especially important. Schools are at great variance in their attention to the ear-training of students. Research concerning tonal memory by Van Neuys and Weaver (9), concluded that a group's memory span for various kinds of meaningful melodies decreased as the complexity of note relations increased, both for rhythm and melody. While observing the learning process, educators have noted those musically talented students who have the ability to reproduce immediately music which they hear. It is implied that this skill for the instrumentalist, ear-playing, is dependent on inherent ability as well as on the technical skill required when playint the instrument. This paper describes an attempt to find the relationship between high school instrumental music students' performances of sight-reading music and reproducing music immediately by ear, and to discover the relative contribution which certain student characteristics may malie to these two performances.1 The student characteristics include amounts of music instruction, kinds of music instruction, intelligence quotients, mental ages, leadership status, and music goals.

The 5s made delayed pitch comparisons when the tones to be compared were accompanied by tones of lower pitch. The pitches of these accompanying tones were so chosen that in some conditions the intervals formed by the standard and comparison combinations were identical, and in others they differed. This was true both when the standard and comparison tone pitches differed and also when these were identical. Although 5s were instructed to attend only to the standard and comparison tones, a substantial effect of relational context was manifest. When the standard and comparison tones differed, but were in an equivalent relational context, there resulted an increased tendency for their pitches to be judged as identical. When the standard and comparison tones were identical, but were in different relational contexts, there resulted an increased tendency for their pitches to be judged as different. Previous research has shown that pitch information is retained in a system possessing a high degree of organization and specificity. When two temporally separated tones are compared for pitch, the interpolation of a further tone during the retention interval impairs performance (Wickelgren, 1966). When several tones are interpolated, error rates vary precisely and systematically as a function of the relationships between the test tones and the intervening tones (Deutsch, 1972b). Furthermore, specific sources of memory disruption exhibit partial octave generalization, which shows that this memory system involves both "tone height" and "tone chroma" components (Deutsch, 1973b). It is clear, however, that the store retaining pitch information must be only a subdivision of the tonal memory system. In listening to music we easily recognize transposed melodies or harmonic sequences as familiar, even though their component pitches have altered. Indeed, providing that sufficient time or interference occurs between the initial presentation of a musical sequence and its repetition in transposed form, we may even become unaware of a

Several aspects of this author's subjective experiences concerned with perception of pitch are at variance with the experiences reported by Paul T. Brady, J. Acoust. Soc Am. 48, 883–887 (1970). In particular, my recognition is not tied to a specific scale (though, of course, nomenclature must be); the precision of recognition shows little fluctuation, if any; and changes in tuning do not influence the recognition of pitch, although such changes may influence the performance of remembered music and the ease of transposition. Tonal memory overrides motor memory for the performance of music learned on instruments tuned to initially different keys.

During an investigation designed to explore the effects of brain lesions on musical ability in professional musicians, the Seashore Scale was used to discover whether focal damage was associated with specific impairment of any of the basic elements of musical talent. In order to obtain adequate control of the experimental group it was necessary to study a comparable group of professional musicians. For this purpose the Seashore test battery was given to 21 orchestral players. The scores obtained by these professionals were better than an estimate of the population values in only three of the six tests, pitch discrimination, rhythm and tonal memory; they were significantly poorer in the test of timbre. This unexpected finding sheds doubt on Seashore's assumptions about the requirements for high musical talent. It also raises questions on the use of the Seashore battery in certain areas of psychological research.

With the aid of the Distorted Tunes Test a group of British adults could be established whose melodic aptitude was below a certain level and whom we called tune deaf. They are only a fraction of those popularly called tone deaf. The Distorted Tunes Test is only slightly correlated with pitch discrimination, short term tonal memory or number memory. In children ability to pass the Distorted Tunes Test develops at greatly varying speeds and to a varying degree, reaching stability in adolescence. Tune deafness has a familial distribution and segregates in a way suggesting an autosomal dominant trait with imperfect penetrance. Some degree of positive assortative mating has been established. Some people, unfamiliar with the British melodies which form the basis of the test, pass it. This indicates the existence of a partly innate and partly acquired competence to judge what is acceptable and what is not, within the tradition of Western popular or classical music. This seems to indicate the existence of some deep structure of tonality, comparable with Chomsky's deep language structure. Asians who have not been much exposed to this kind of music find the task very difficult.

By a process of screening 114 music students with superior ability for tonal memory, 24 were found to possess a tonal memory span greater than 6 tones on a test of 30 paired non‐melodic tonal patterns specially designed by the author for measuring a 7 to 12 span retention. Only 2 had a 12‐tone memory span for each of the three areas of the piano, namely, 64 to 192 cps, 256 to 768 cps, and 1024 to 3072 cps. Two of the students possessed a 12 tone memory span, but for only one of the three areas. The maximum span given in the test was double the 6 tone upper limit span of the Seashore—Series B Tonal Memory Test. Statistically speaking, the 4 with the 12‐tonal memory span are 3 sigmas or more beyond the mean. The findings of this experiment indicate that unusual tonal memory is not necessarily the same in extent for all pitch areas of the piano.

OR some years past the music department of the Medina County (Ohio) Schools has administered musical talent tests to pupils in the fifth and sixth grades in an effort to discover what pupils should take advantage of the opportunities for music study offered in the school instrumental classes. During the last school year careful record was kept of enrollment both before and after the tests were given, so that an accurate report might be made regarding the effectiveness of such tests in stimulating interest in instrumental study and in bringing about increased enrollment in the classes. Enrollment for instrumental classes is taken during the first week of school. At that time the children who have already decided to study an instrument sign up for the classes. Last year the names of these students were kept separate from later registrants so that it would be possible to tell which pupils came into the classes entirely as a result of the tests. During the second week of school, four of the Kwalwasser-Dykema music tests were given in all the fifth and sixth grade rooms of the county, these being the grades from which most of the beginning instrumental pupils are recruited. The four tests given were the pitch discrimination, the tonal memory, the rhythmic imagery and the tonal imagery. The question may arise as to why only these four were used instead of the entire battery of tests. The reason was largely one of administrative necessity; to give and grade all of the tests would have required more time than was available. It seemed that the pitch discrimination and tonal memory tests would give a fairly good indication of the natural underlying musical sensitivity of the children, and that the rhythmic and tonal imagery tests would give some indication of how well the children had responded to the usual musical instruction in their regular classrooms. The assumption was that a child who is naturally musical will acquire more knowledge of music notation in the regular school classes than one who possesses more meagre musical talent. All of the papers were graded and the pupils were given percentile rankings according to the plan outlined in the manual of instructions accompanying the tests. If a child received a percentile ranking of fifty or above in any one of the tests it was assumed that he had average or more than average ability in the musical capacity measured by that particular test. Since four tests were given, it was assumed that a child who ranked above fifty in any three of them probably possessed more than the average amount of musical talent and would therefore make a good candidate for class instrumental instruction. To the parents of these children who ranked above the fiftieth percentile in three or more of the tests, the following letter was sent, by mail so that it might receive more careful consideration and attention.