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This article generalizes Bechtel and Bechtel (2020a, 2020b). The results in these papers induce our hypotheses that GDP predicts income and survival. These hypotheses are confirmed at the global level and we invite the G20 to confirm them at the national level as well. Our regressions show that global life expectancy and global gross income per capata can be predicted from GDP alone without survey sampling, questionnaire interrogation, probabilistic inference, or significance testing. In view of trade-war and COVID-19 shocks to the world economy,international attention to GDP’s life-saving effects is now compelling.

Bechtel (2018, 2019) linked gross domestic product (GDP) to the United Nation’s Human Development Index (HDI). These results at the national level, and subsequent results at the global level (Bechtel, G. and Bechtel, T., 2020), induce our hypothesis that a transform of American GDP predicts global HDI. This hypothesis is confirmed by two distinct bilinear regressions in which global HDI is predicted by American GDP alone. These empirical findings contribute to the socioeconomic and philosophical debate on the nature of well-being. They also show that HDI computation can be carried out from American GDP without survey sampling, questionnaire interrogation, probabilistic inference, significance testing, or even HDI data. In view of trade-war and covid-19 shocks to all national economies, international attention to American GDP is now compelling.

This article presents a new UWB impulse radar system consisting of a central radiating antenna (1.9-GHz center frequency, 2-GHz bandwidth) and four receiving antennas designed for the detection and location of dielectrically large objects with dimensions comparable to the spatial dimensions of the probe pulse. Together with the radar system, a solution method for determining the coordinates for detected targets is developed based on the time of flight (TOF) of the probing pulse along raypaths from the radiating antenna to the object, and then reflected to each of the receiving antennas. An algorithm based on the Pearson’s correlation coefficient is used to accurately determine the TOF of the signals scattered by the object. The antenna geometry makes it possible to use simple trigonometry and Heron’s formula, to calculate the coordinates of the reflecting bright spot on a target. The algorithm has been tested by numerical simulations and experiments with a cylindrical metallic object (diameter 10 cm) and a plastic-cased PMN-2 landmine buried in natural clay soil. For the experiment, GPR signals were acquired on a $4 \times 4$ square grid at 10-cm step from a height of about 30 cm above the ground. The system detected the test object in all positions and the positioning error in majority is equivalent to the object size.

The American Federal Reserve’s Board of Governors has been negotiating with the Congress in order to add a third mandate to their longstanding missions of reducing unemployment and inflation. Chairman Powell described this mandate as the mitigation of shrinking GDP. We model this mandate by two axioms, which reveal American GDP as the sole driver of global GDP. The close fit of each model demonstrates that axiomatic venture can discover and corroborate truth via distinct pathways. In view of trade-war and pandemic shocks to GDP worldwide, this third mandate is now compelling. Congressional inaction will reduce global livelihood in a post-pandemic era (https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/testimony/powell20190710a.htm).

Bechtel (2018, 2019) linked gross domestic product (GDP) to the United Nation’s Human Development Index (HDI). Bechtel, G. and Bechtel, T., 2020 then found that American GDP alone predicted HDI. These results induce the hypotheses that two transforms of GDP perfectly predict a new index of HDI-attenuated GDP (W) introduced here. These hypotheses are confirmed at the global level and for the United States and China, the world’s two largest economies. These discoveries inform the debate on well-being and show that W can be computed from GDP without survey sampling, questionnaire interrogation, probabilistic inference, or significance testing. In view of trade-war and COVID-19 shocks to the global and national economies, international attention to GDP and human development is now compelling.

This article extends results reported by Bechtel, G. and Bechtel, T. (2021). These previous findings induce the hypothesis confirmed here; namely, that gross domestic product GDP nearly perfectly predicts survival in the world’s entire population. The fractional polynomial regressions here are run over the pre-pandemic period 1991–2016. During the subsequent pandemic, the American Center for Disease Control reported that life expectancy at birth in the USA dropped one year during the first six months of 2020, the largest drop since World War 11. The drops in African and Hispanic life expectancy at birth during this period were 2.7 and 1.9 years (Aljazeera; Democracy Now, February 18, 2021). The USA is the worst covid-19-effected population. It is now imperative to confirm that life expectancy at birth is well predicted from GDP in all nations over 1991–2018. This pre-pandemic control for each nation will accurately calibrate it’s subsequent yearly survival drops due to Covid-19. This is especially important in light of the trade war between the United States and China, which has increased the need for accurate measurement of the human effects of this war.

(IF 6.44; Q1); International audience; Karst aquifers provide drinking water for 10% of the world’s population, support agriculture, groundwater-dependent activities, and ecosystems. These aquifers are characterised by complex groundwater-flow systems, hence, they are extremely vulnerable and protecting them requires an in-depth understanding of the systems. Poor data accessibility has limited advances in karst research and realistic representation of karst processes in large-scale hydrological studies. In this study, we present World Karst Spring hydrograph (WoKaS) database, a community-wide effort to improve data accessibility. WoKaS is the first global karst springs discharge database with over 400 spring observations collected from articles, hydrological databases and researchers. The dataset’s coverage compares to the global distribution of carbonate rocks with some bias towards the latitudes of more developed countries. WoKaS database will ensure easy access to a large-sample of good quality datasets suitable for a wide range of applications: comparative studies, trend analysis and model evaluation. This database will largely contribute to research advancement in karst hydrology, supports karst groundwater management, and promotes international and interdisciplinary collaborations.

Karst aquifers provide drinking water for 10% of the world’s population, support agriculture, groundwater-dependent activities, and ecosystems. These aquifers are characterised by complex groundwater-flow systems, hence, they are extremely vulnerable and protecting them requires an in-depth understanding of the systems. Poor data accessibility has limited advances in karst research and realistic representation of karst processes in large-scale hydrological studies. In this study, we present World Karst Spring hydrograph (WoKaS) database, a community-wide effort to improve data accessibility. WoKaS is the first global karst springs discharge database with over 400 spring observations collected from articles, hydrological databases and researchers. The dataset’s coverage compares to the global distribution of carbonate rocks with some bias towards the latitudes of more developed countries. WoKaS database will ensure easy access to a large-sample of good quality datasets suitable for a wide range of applications: comparative studies, trend analysis and model evaluation. This database will largely contribute to research advancement in karst hydrology, supports karst groundwater management, and promotes international and interdisciplinary collaborations., Measurement(s)hydrographic feature • fluid flow rateTechnology Type(s)digital curationFactor Type(s)geographic location • yearSample Characteristic - Environmentkarst • spring • groundwater Machine-accessible metadata file describing the reported data: 10.6084/m9.figshare.11336507

Holographic subsurface radar (HSR) is not currently not in widespread usage. This is due to an historical perspective in the ground penetrating radar (GPR) community that the high attenuation of electromagnetic waves in most media of interest, and the inability to apply timevarying gain to the continuous wave (CW) HSR signal precludes sufficient effective penetration depth. While it is true that the fundamental physics of HSR, with its use of a CW signal, does not allow amplification of later (i.e. deeper) arrivals in lossy media (as is possible with impulse subsurface radar — ISR), HSR has distinct advantages. The most important of these is the ability to do shallow subsurface imaging with a resolution that is not possible with ISR. In addition, the design of an HSR system is simpler than for ISR due to the relatively low-tech transmitting and receiving antennae. This paper provides a review of the main principles of HSR through an optical analogy and describes possible algorithms for radar hologram reconstruction. We also present a review of the history of development of systems and applications for HSR of the “RASCAN” type which is possibly the only commercially available holographic subsurface radars. Among the subsurface imaging and remote sensing applications considered are humanitarian demining, construction inspection, nondestructive testing of dielectric aerospace materials, surveys of historic architecture and artworks, paleontology, and security screening. Each application is illustrated with relevant data acquired in laboratory and/or field experiments.

To protect karst spring water resources, catchments must be known. We have developed a method for correlating spring hydrographs with newly available, high-resolution, satellite-based Global Precipitation Measurement data to rapidly and remotely locate recharge areas. We verify the method using a synthetic comparison of ground-based rain gage data with the satellite precipitation data set. Application to karst springs is proven by correlating satellite data with hydrographs from well-known springs with published catchments in Europe and North America. Application to an unknown-catchment spring in Pennsylvania suggests distant recharge, requiring a flow path that crosses topographic divides, as well as multiple lithologies, physiographic provinces, and tectonic boundaries. Although surprising, this latter result is consistent with published geologic/geophysical, monitoring well, and stream gage data. We conclude that the method has considerable potential to improve the speed and accuracy of catchment identification and hydrodynamic characterization, with applications to water resource protection and groundwater exploration, among others.

To design holographic and impulse ground penetrating radar (GPR) sensors suitable for humanitarian de-mining in the Donbass (Ukraine) conflict zone, we measured critical electromagnetic parameters of typical local soils using simple methods that could be adapted to any geologic setting. Measurements were recorded along six profiles, each crossing at least two mapped soil types. The parameters selected to evaluate GPR and metal detector sensor performance were magnetic permeability, electrical conductivity, and dielectric permittivity. Magnetic permeability measurements indicated that local soils would be conducive to metal detector performance. Electrical conductivity measurements indicated that local soils would be medium to high loss materials for GPR. Calculation of the expected attenuation as a function of signal frequency suggested that 1 GHz may have optimized the trade-off between resolution and penetration and matched the impulse GPR system power budget. Dielectric permittivity was measured using both time domain reflectometry and impulse GPR. For the latter, a calibration procedure based on an in-situ measurement of reflection coefficient was proposed and the data were analyzed to show that soil conditions were suitable for the reliable use of impulse GPR. A distinct difference between the results of these two suggested a dry (low dielectric) soil surface, grading downward into more moist (higher dielectric) soils. This gradation may provide a matching layer to reduce ground surface reflections that often obscure shallow subsurface targets. In addition, the relatively high dielectric deeper (10 cm–20 cm) subsurface soils should provide a strong contrast with plastic-cased mines.

Geothermal energy can be used for heating, electric power generation and other applications (e.g. Seyboth et al. 2008). The confidence of the public in this technology is currently compromised by several bad examples where inappropriate implementation of geothermal installations has caused avoidable damage. A dramatic but instructive case is presented here. This article is a plea both for the reasonable use of geothermal energy and for more geologic and hydrogeologic competence and education in geothermics. Connoisseurs of classical German literature know the historic town of Staufen (7,800 inhabitants; Fig. 1) as the town of Doctor Faust, immortalised by the eponymous drama written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749– 1832). The town is currently suffering severe damage that began immediately following geothermal drillings in the city centre. Staufen is located in the Upper Rhine Graben, within the tectonic transition zone between the central graben and the Black Forest. The graben is filled with several kilometres of sediments; the Black Forest mainly consists of crystalline rocks. In the transition or foothill zone (German: Vorbergzone), Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are present below the surface or crop out as ridges and hills, reflecting the fault pattern and tilting of the strata. In this region, the Upper Triassic (Keuper), which is also present below Staufen, includes gypsum and anhydrite layers and lenses of substantial thickness, which is common knowledge and documented in publications and geologic maps. Even a standard German-language textbook entitled Geologie von Mitteleuropa (Geology of Central Europe) mentions noteworthy anhydrite occurrences in this region (Walter 1992). Anhydrite transforms into gypsum when it comes in contact with water, resulting in a volume increase of up to 61% that can generate pressures of 5–10 MN/m. Geotechnical engineering books, including traditional German textbooks, discuss this problem and recommend avoiding any contact between anhydrite and groundwater in all types of construction activities (Prinz 1991). There are numerous well-studied examples, internationally and in southwest Germany, where swelling of anhydrite caused severe geotechnical problems during construction of roads, tunnels or buildings. In the USA alone, an oftcited study by Jones and Holtz (1973) calculated that shrinking or swelling materials inflicted at least $2.3 billion USD annually in damage to houses, buildings and roads. This geologic and geotechnical knowledge appears to have been ignored during the Staufen project, and a predictable disaster has run its course. In late 2007, seven boreholes, up to 140 m deep, were drilled into the gypsumand anhydrite-bearingKeuper formations, creating hydraulic contact between anhydrite and confined groundwater. The boreholes were cased in the uppermost part, while the deeper parts remained uncased. A few weeks after drilling, cracks started to form in nearby buildings. Geodetic measurements soon revealed that the ground was rising. Since then, the impacted area has increased steadily; 131 houses are currently affected, with some houses seriously damaged (Fig. 2). The highest uplift exceeds 1 cm/month, with no signs yet of slowing. The uplift rate and the degree of damage generally decrease with increasing distance from the drillings (statement to the press, released in December 2008 on the website of Staufen, www.stadt-staufen.de). One type of crack is particularly prominent and frightening: vertical, open cracks that seem to be oriented towards the area of the drillings and tend to cut the impacted buildings from the ceiling to the roof (Fig. 3). It is conceptualised that these types of radially divergent, vertical cracks also exists underground, caused by serious swelling of a cylindrical zone around the drillings. At the N. Goldscheider ()) Centre of Hydrogeology (CHYN), University of Neuchâtel, Rue Emile-Argand 11, 2009, Neuchâtel, Switzerland e-mail: nico.goldscheider@unine.ch Tel.: +41-32-7182645

Holographic subsurface radars (HSR) are not in common usage now; possibly because of the historical view amongst radar practitioners that high attenuation of electromagnetic waves in most media of interest will not allow sufficient depth of penetration. It is true that the fundamental physics of HSR prevent the possibility to change receiver amplification with time (i.e., depth) to adapt to lossy media (as is possible with impulse subsurface radar or ISR). However, use of HSR for surveying of shallow subsurface objects, defects, or inhomogeneities is an increasingly proven area of application. In this case, HSR can record images with higher resolution than is possible for ISR images. The RASCAN family of holographic radars is presented along with technical specifications and typical case histories. Among the applications considered are civil and historic building surveys, nondestructive testing of dielectric materials, security applications, and humanitarian demining. Each application area is illustrated by relevant data acquired in laboratory experiments or field tests. This paper presents experiments with RASCAN imaging in media with different degrees of attenuation, and illustrates the principle of HSR through an optical analogy.

A subsurface holographic radar using a multi-frequency signal has been developed for inspecting dielectric construction materials. The characteristic feature of this device is the ability to obtain one-sided radar soundings/images with a high sensitivity and high resolution (2cm) in the frequency band of 3.6{4.0GHz. One promising application of the device is non- destructive evaluation of the heat protection system and other materials on the U.S. Space Shuttle, and proposed crewed exploration vehicle (CEV). The advantages of this continuous- wave holographic radar over traditional impulse subsurface radars are discussed and illustrated by experimental results. The disastrous loss of the space shuttle Columbia, as well as even more recent dangerous incidents that were thankfully resolved, have aroused interest in possible new methods and devices for non- destructive testing and evaluation of the Space Shuttle Thermal Protection System, the external fuel tank insulating foam, and other materials and structures on the shuttle (see Figure 1), proposed CEV, and other space vehicles. Voids in or under the external tank insulating foam are considered potential sites for \cryopumping" where water seeps in and then evaporates explosively at altitude, pulling the foam from the tank (Figure 2). One of the possible means for non-destructive testing (NDT) and evaluation of structural ma- terials is subsurface radar. This method is based on the propensity of electromagnetic waves to be re∞ected at permittivity contrasts. Up to now, the use of radar for NDT has been hindered by

A technique for estimating flexural rigidity that is not limited to sedimentary basins is used here to map variations in the effective elastic thickness of the North American lithosphere. The effective elastic thickness ranges from a minimum of about 4 km in the Basin and Range Province to more than 100 km in the Precambrian core of the continent. This finding supports the idea that flexural rigidity has increased with time since the last thermal event.

Summary The topography and gravity anomalies in the area surrounding the East African Rift in Kenya can be modelled as the sum of the effects of surface and subsurface loading of an elastic plate. Assuming surface and subsurface loading are independent processes, the observed coherence between the 2-D Fourier transforms of Bouguer gravity and topography provides a constraint on the effective elastic thickness or flexural rigidity of the plate. Distinct linear segments of the log gravity power spectrum suggest that components of the gravity field with wavelengths of 250–1000 km are generated predominantly by a density contrast at a depth of about 32 km. Most shorter wavelength gravity anomalies are probably associated with source depths of less than 1 km and indicate variations in thickness of low density sedimentary or volcanic layers or lateral variations in density of the surface rocks. A simple density model based on these estimates and the geology of Kenya consists of a cover layer averaging 0.5 km thick with density 2300 kg m−3, a layer 32 km thick with density 2800 kg m−3, and an underlying half-space with density 3200 kg m−3. Using this density model and assuming loading due to relief on all three density interfaces, the elastic thickness that best predicts the observed coherence in the least squares sense is 25 km (Flexural rigidity of 1.4 × 1023Nm). Amplitudes of loads on the density interfaces can be calculated based on the model response. Topography with wavelength greater than 650 km is locally compensated making surface and subsurface loading indistinguishable. At shorter wavelengths, rift volcanics and volcanic cones including Mts Kenya, Elgon and Kilimanjaro can be identified as surface loads. The largest amplitude subsurface load is an upward directed, regionally supported load beneath the Kenya Dome that may correspond to a region of hot, low density mantle recognized by other geophysical studies. In creating the topography for which surface and sub-surface loading are distinguishable, surface loading is much more important than doming due to subsurface loading.

The RASCAN holographic radar system has been developed by the Remote Sensing Laboratory of Bauman Moscow Technical University. The present design uses flve frequencies and two polarisations to give 10 distinct images of scan from buried objects. Because of the sinusoidal phase variation of the interference signals, all displays show a complex picture of dark and light phases which vary in a complicated way between difierent frequencies and polarizations. This is a preliminary investigation into the optimal presentation of the 10 images as a single composite image. The objective is to display as much as possible of the information present in the original image. The solution presented here is to sum the absolute values of the background-corrected amplitude over both the flve frequencies and the two polarizations. The method is justifled using an experiment in which nine US pennies, and 9 metal washers, were buried in sand at increasing depths in the range 0 to 56mm. The method is illustrated by example images from the flelds of civil engineering and mine detection.