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Introducción. La utilización de la Intrucción directa (ID) con tarjetas ha sido señalada como un procedimiento intervención de aula efectivo. El presente trabajo examina el uso de un sistema de tarjetas de instrucción directa con dos adolecentes con dificultades de aprendizaje.Objetivos. El propósito de esta investigación fue incrementar la tasa de respuestas correctas y disminuir la tasa de error en la visión/escritura de dígitos en multiplicaciones utilizando un sistema de tarjetas de instrucción directa con una estrategia de repetición de tres tarjetas tras los errores. Otro objetivo fue favorecer la extensión y replicación de trabajos previos realiza-dos con la metodología de instrucción directa.Método. Los participantes fueron dos estudiantes de enseñanza elemental con dificultades de aprendizaje. Tras la establecer la línea base, se implementó el sistema de tarjetas a través de instrucción directa. El estudio fue realizado en un aula del centro. La escuela estaba situada en un área de nivel alto de pobreza de una zona urbana. Los efectos de la intervención fueron evaluados mediante un diseño de múltiples líneas basales para cada estudiante.Resultados: Ambos participantes mejoraron su capacidad en relación con las tareas matemáticas. Estos cambios fueron inmediatos y se extendieron durante los primeros dos pasos. Algunos problemas de generalización en los últimos pasos fueron observados para ambos participantes.Discusión. El sistema de tarjetas fue poco costoso y fácil de implementar. Se proporcionan algunas recomendaciones para la utilización de este sistema.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the Direct Instruction (DI) flashcards procedure and the math racetrack to improve mastery of multiplication facts by a 6 th grade girl enrolled in a resource room classroom in a parochial school. The dependent variable was the number correct for multiplication facts. A second measure was the number of correct multiplication math facts from a pre- and posttest of 100 multiplication problems. The number of seconds required to complete the math racetrack was assessed. The effect of the DI flashcard procedure was evaluated in a single-subject multiple-baseline design between three sets of multiplication math facts. Our results indicated a clear functional relationship between the implementation of the DI multiplication flashcards and the mastery of multiplication facts with Sets 1 through 3. By the end of data collection, our participant had increased her performance on a 100- problem, 5-minute, multiplication test from the pretest of 34 facts to the posttest of 55 facts.. The procedures were cost effective and required little training to implement.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of the Direct Instruction (DI) flashcard system combined with model, lead, and test on the mastery of numerical identification for a nonverbal preschool girl with developmental delay. The research was carried out in a self-contained preschool classroom. The classroom enrolled children with delays in the skill areas of preacademic, expressive communication, receptive communication, gross motor, fine motor, or adaptive. Our participant was a 4-year-old girl scheduled to be placed into an integrated preschool containing a combination of children with delays in one or more area and their typically developing peers the following year. She was behind her typically developing peers in the area of numeral identification. A single-subject, multiple baseline design across three sets of target numerals was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the DI flashcard procedure. A functional relationship was shown between numeral recognition and the implementation of our intervention. Suggestions for future research were made.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a model, lead, and test (MLT) error correction in conjunction with tracing and a fading procedures for teaching shape drawing to two students with developmental delays. Both of our participants were enrolled in a special education preschool classroom. A multiple baseline across shapes and participants was employed to evaluate of the effectiveness of our two intervention procedures. The results for the participants indicated that the use of MLT with the tracing and fading procedure was effective in producing the skill of drawing shapes. Data collection was very practical and easy to implement in a preschool classroom setting

The purpose of this study was to increase the legibility of letter writing using a tracing procedure derived from the Handwriting Without Tears ® program (1). Our participant was enrolled in a self-contained special education preschool classroom. The child was expected to move on to an integrated kindergarten during that next school year, so gaining handwriting skills and being able to write her name should increase her chances for success. During baseline, she could only write one of the six letters in her first name. When tracing the letters of her first name on a Handwriting Without Tears ® worksheet and then copying the letters, the writing of the letters in her name increased. Overall, our results suggest that the use of the Handwriting Without Tears ® worksheet along with a visual model can increase the participant's ability to write letters. The efficacy of employing these procedures is discussed.

The purpose of this study employ and evaluate the use of a spelling racetrack with a single general education student with low performance in spelling. Our participant was a 7-year-old-student having difficulty spelling words from the general education curriculum. The study was conducted in a general education classroom in a large urban school in eastern Washington. The two dependent variables were the number of correct and error words from his spelling tests each day. The effects of the spelling racetracks procedure and its addition within an ongoing motivational system in the class- room were evaluated using an ABAB single case replication design. When the spelling racetrack was being employed the participant's number of correct words spelled increased while his errors declined. This was replicated each time it was in effect. We also found a statistically significant increased for correct words and a significant decline in errors. The benefits of employing a racetrack procedure that could be modified for spelling was both effective and motivating for the partici- pant are presented. The limitations of the present case report are also outlined.

The purpose of this research was to determine the effectiveness of reading racetracks on the sight word acquisi- tion and fluency of two elementary students who qualified for special education services. An ABABA' reversal, single subject design provided data on the number of words the participants read correctly during a 1-minute timing as well as his or her error rate during that same 1-minute timing. The overall outcomes indicated an increase in the acquisition and fluency of sight words and a decrease in errors. Maintenance of treatment gains were noted for both corrects and errors during the post-testing of each participant. Very small declines in corrects were noted as were small increases in errors.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of Direct Instruction curricula for teaching reading com- prehension skills in the home. The participant was a 12-year-old girl who was enrolled in the seventh grade at a public middle school in the Pacific Northwest. She had been unable to pass her Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) in the sixth grade. Two undergraduate students served as instructors. Each session began by asking 12 systemati- cally random comprehension questions from the lessons of Corrective Reading Comprehension Skills Book B1. These comprehension questions served as the major dependent variable. The results indicated an increase number of correct reading comprehensions when Direct Instruction materials and procedures were employed. The use of Direct Instruction was cost effective, required little training to correctly implement, and was time efficient. The participant enjoyed the pro- cedures and was proud of her improvements in reading. Reading comprehension may be considered one of the most vital skills for successful academic performance in our schools and later in society (1). Reading is required in most academic subjects and plays an indispensable role in success in school (2). High levels of achievement in literacy are im- portant for learning across the curriculum, for independence in engaging with print, for personal satisfaction, and reading sets the occasion for success in an increasingly information- based economy (3). Comprehension skills also play a critical role in mastering text. This takes place both inside and out

The purpose of this study was to shape letters using tracing procedures based from Handwriting Without Tears ® program (1). This writing program was implemented to teach two preschool students with disabilities to write their first name. The participants were enrolled in a self-contained special education classroom and each participant had little or no skills in handwriting. Since both students are moving into kindergarten next year, this was as am important goal to teach each participant to write their names. The outcomes indicated that during baseline, neither student could legibly write the letters in their first name. During the first intervention, the students traced one specific letter in their name using Handwriting without Tears worksheets. In the second intervention, the students traced the specific letter and traced their name over a yellow marker. In the third intervention, the students continued to trace their specific letter and traced their name over a yellow marker with starting dots. The results suggested that tracing letters using Handwriting without Tears ® worksheets and tracing name over yellow marker was beneficial to teach to preschool students with disabilities to write their name.

This study evaluated the effects of using differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) with a differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) resetting time schedule to reduce stereotypy in a child with Rett Syndrome. The primary purpose of the investigation was to compare latency and choice as dependent measures to identify reinforcers for use within a DRO/A contingency using a resetting time schedule. The treatment contingencies were arranged to decrease the rate of stereotypy and increased functional play skills. Overall, our results support the use of latency to respond as a dependent measure for selecting reinforcers. Keywords: Response Latency, Preference Assessment, Automatic Behavior ********** When working with children who engage in inappropriate behavior, it is relatively easy to identify a social function. Through observation and manipulation of environmental variables, previous research suggests that most problem behavior is maintained by a social function (Iwata et al., 1994). Treatment for behaviors that serve an automatic function are more difficult to identify because social reinforcers are not identified. Specifically, maintaining contingencies are extremely difficult to manipulate because the behavior itself provides reinforcement (Iwata et al., 1994). Often, an attempt is made to identify activities or objects that can compete with the behavior itself (Alberto & Troutman, 2005). Alternatively, attempts can be made to identify substitutable stimuli to replace sensory reinforcement obtained by engaging in the behavior (Piazza, Hanley, & Fisher, 1996). In addition, it has been demonstrated in the literature that substitutable stimuli are (a) preferred and (b) result in decreased levels of problem behavior when presented non-contingently. The purpose of this study was to identify effective reinforcers for use in a treatment package for a young child who engaged in stereotypic behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement. By doing so, we further sought to compare the use of choice versus response latency as a dependent measure for use within a preference assessment. We hypothesized that more effective reinforcers would be identified using response latency as a dependent measure. Specifically, because these stimuli were shown to decrease the occurrence of automatic behavior within the preference assessment, we hypothesized that they were substitutable to the behavior. Method Participants and Setting The participant was a 6-year-old female diagnosed with Rett Syndrome. She was referred by her classroom teacher for the assessment and treatment of stereotypy. Stereotypy was reported to occur at high rates in home and school settings. All observations took place in a 3.m by 4.5m room located adjacent to her classroom. The room was equipped with a two-way window for unobtrusive observation. Data Collection, and Interobserver Agreement The dependent variables were (a) inappropriate vocalizations, which were defined as loud, raspy, noises in the back of the throat occurring in brief bursts; (b) spitting which was defined as having the tongue completely out of the mouth making a spitting noise; (c) hand wringing which was defined as rubbing the pads on the fingers of one hand against the pads on the fingers of the other hand together, usually done by the shoulder; (d) hand flapping defined as moving her hands up and down either by the hips or shoulders; (e) latency, which was defined as the amount of time, in seconds, between the presentation of an item and the first occurrence of a stereotypic response; and (f) choice, which was defined as reaching for one of two objects within a concurrent operant format. Data were collected using three different observational systems: (a) partial-interval recording, (b) event recording, and (c) latency recording. All partial interval recording was collected via videotape and scored later using a 6-s recording system. …

This study compared the copy, cover, and compare method to a picture-word matching method for teaching sight word recognition. Participants were 5 kindergarten students with less than preprimer sight word vocabularies who were enrolled in a public school in the Pacific Northwest. A multielement design was used to evaluate the effects of the two interventions. Outcomes suggested that sight words taught using the copy, cover, and compare method resulted in better maintenance of word recognition when compared to the picture-matching intervention. Benefits to students and the practicality of employing the word-level teaching methods are discussed.

Cover, Copy, and Compare (CCC) is a simple, efficient, self-managed academic intervention that can be used to improve accuracy, fluency, and maintenance across students, curricula objectives, academic skill domains, and settings. In it's simplest form CCC requires students to look at an academic stimulus (e.g., for spelling the stimulus would be a written a word) cover the stimulus, respond by copying the stimulus (e.g., writing the word), and evaluate the responses by comparing it to the original stimulus. The CCC procedure and research that supports the generalizability and ecological validity of this procedure is described and analyzed. Following this analysis, recommendations for implementing Cover, Copy, and Compare in educational settings are provided.

The effectiveness of using the reading racetrack drill and practice intervention on the sight word acquisition and fluency of 15 elementary students was examined in two separate experiments. A multiple baseline design across participants was used. The participants were 15 third and fourth-grade students attending a public (n =10) or parochial (n =5) elementary school. Participants included children receiving special education services in a resource room, services for learning difficulties, and those in a general classroom setting. Reading racetracks IS a novel approach which employ error correction, timing, and drill and practice procedures. This strategy also utilized drill and practice probe sheets that resemble an automotive racetrack. The results indicated that during the reading racetrack intervention all of the participants more than doubled their correct rate in oral reading. There was also a marked decrease in the number of errors made by each of the participants in this study. The implications of employing reading racetrack procedures for practitioners are outlined.

The purpose of this research was to determine if an in-school breakfast program could increase on-task behaviors of 18 high school students. The effects of the in-school breakfast program were examined in a vocational and an academic setting. A multiple-baseline design across settings and students was employed to assess the effects of the in-class breakfast program. Results indicated that an in-school breakfast program was effective in increasing on-task behaviors in both settings. Questionnaires administered to students before and after implementation of the in-school breakfast program indicate positive change toward breakfast by those who participated. These outcomes indicate that an in-school breakfast program may positively influence on-task behaviors of high school students in a vocational setting and an academic setting.

We examine and review the relationships between variables descriptive of cultural and social capital and the development of a new term: educational capital. While school personnel can use demographic variables to predict outcomes, such predictors do not lend themselves to implementing treatments or programs which may more directly mediate the effects of unequal cultural, social and human capital across the population. To increase and improve the education capital of its constituents, school can: set high expectations, match student skill level with curricular materials, provide home work hotlines, set up peer tutoring programs, develop partnerships with businesses and other community groups, match teacher characteristics with those of the student population, and reduce class size. Likewise, ways that parents might increase their children's educational capital include increasing attendance, taking part in parent-teacher discussions, helping with homework, participating in extracurricular activities, and transmitting aspirations in parent-child interactions.

Introduction. The purpose of this study was to decrease the number of talk-outs displayed with a 3rd grade student with autism. She engaged in these behaviors during work time, specialty classes such as physical education, music and library, and group work.Method. A multiple baseline probe design was used to measure the effectiveness of differential reinforcement with a token economy treatment package. A functional relationship was demonstrated between the reduction in talk-outs and the implementation of a differential reinforcement of an alternative behavior reinforcement schedule (DRA).Results. The participant’s talk-outs decreased across all settings from an average of 10.9 in baseline to a mean 3.1 talk outs during differential reinforcement within a token economy.Conclusion. The use of the positive procedures in the classroom to reduce a problem social behavior is discussed.

The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) has long sought to identify effective programs for teacher preparation in this country. Recently, the Council has revised its standards to be more rigorous and demanding. This revision presents new and challenging standards for the accreditation of programs preparing educators. The most problematic but most important of these new standards is the requirement of a well-articulated knowledge base supporting a program's content and processes. Development of the knowledge base statement involves the articulation of the program's philosophy, theme, model, goals, objectives, primary research base, wisdom of practice, and evaluation procedures. A behavioral model serves well in meeting these requirements, particularly since behavioral applications in education are well researched and the approach is compatible with the emphasis on specific goals and objectives and evaluation of effectiveness. Effective educational methods are available and are mostly behavioral. The articulation of the NCATE knowledge base encourages education faculty, traditionally nonbehavioral, to examine the effectiveness of their programs and to demonstrate research and professional support for content and instructional methods. A behavioral knowledge base statement appropriate for NCATE is demonstrated through examples drawn from Gonzaga University's knowledge base for special education.

The following review summarizes the research concerning the characteristics of at-risk students. Surprisingly, at-risk students have not been extensively studied. However, as the discussion of social structure will document, the available research clearly demonstrates that the single most consistent factor characterizing at-risk students is social class. Social class is a powerful determinant of school success, and, as a consequence, at-risk students are disproportionately drawn from families with low socioeconomic status. Fortunately, researchers, especially sociologists, have devoted considerable energy to studying the impact of social class on educational success. While these researchers have not singled out at-risk students for special study, their findings on why students from lower-socioeconomicstatus families do less well in school than children from middle-class families can be extrapolated to the at-risk population. The relatively few studies focusing exclusively on at-risk students support this link. They suggest that the factors underlying the poorer school performance of students from lower-socioeconomic-status families also account for much of the variance between students who are at-risk and those who are not. Accordingly, in this report we will discuss, not only studies of students identified as being at-risk, but also studies investigating the impact of social class on school success.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of two spelling programs on the weekly spelling performance of 5 underachieving elementary school students. The subjects were 3 boys and 2 girls between the ages of 8.3 and 9.6 years. The students were identified as being the poorest spellers in a Grade 3 class. The spelling programs compared were the Add-A-Word Spelling Program and Compu Spell (a commercial computer spelling program). Data were gathered on spelling accuracy in both the regular classroom and in the learning assistance classroom (special education class) throughout an entire school year. A multi-element baseline design was used to compare the effectiveness of each program. The results indicated that both programs improved the spelling achievement of the students and that this improvement was sustained throughout the duration of the study. Reasons for the outcomes are discussed.

The effects of written feedback on accuracy in reading with 5 students enrolled in a self-contained classroom for behaviorally disordered children and youth were evaluated. Written feedback, placed on students' reading assignments, was evaluated in a multiple baseline design across students. The outcomes indicated improved accuracy in reading when written feedback was provided by the teacher. This finding was replicated across all 5 students. The students also rated the written feedback procedure favorably. Differences between previous research and the present outcomes were examined. The benefits of using written feedback as an intervention procedure with behaviorally disordered children, youth, and other student populations are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of frequent testing on the performance of high school algebra students. A counterbalanced ABAB design in which two classes of Grade 11 algebra students were administered tests on a weekly and biweekly schedule was used. Each testing condition lasted for 2 months, and data were collected for a total of 8 months. The results indicated a definite improvement in performance during the weekly versus biweekly testing. This outcome was replicated each time that more frequent testing was in effect. Low- and middle-achieving students generated the higher gains. A questionnaire given to the students at the end of the study indicated a preference by the students for weekly testing conditions.

Introducción: El programa Handwriting Without Tears® (Olsen, 1998) ha sido considerado como un conjunto de procedimientos adecuados para la enseñanza de la escritura para niños con y sin discapacidad. Desafortunadamente, existen pocas investigaciones sobre la utilidad de dicho programa en la enseñanza de la escritura.Objetivos: El propósito del estudio es incrementar la legibilidad de las letras utilizando los procedimientos de trazado del programa Handwriting Without Tears® program (Olsen, 1998).Método: El programa se implementa para desarrollar la escritura de letras de dos alumnos autistas de educación infantil. Los efectos del programa Handwriting Without Tears® (Olsen, 1998) se evalúan a través de un diseño de línea base múltiple (Kazdin, 1982). La recogida de datos y los procedimientos fueron desarrollados en una clase infantil de educación infantil, evaluándose el número de letras legibles.Resultados: Los resultados indicaron que, en la línea base, ninguno de los participantes podía escribir de forma legible las letras elegidas para el estudio. Los resultados del estudio también indican que la utilización de la pizarra y la hoja de trabajo del programa Handwriting Without Tears® junto con las indicaciones, modelo y punto de inicio, pueden incrementar la habilidad de los estudiantes para escribir determinadas letras. Este hallazgo se repite en todos los parti-cipantes.Discusión: Los resultados obtenidos en la presente investigación apoyan el uso del programa Handwriting Without Tears®. Tales hallazgos fueron encontrados en estudiantes diagnosticados como autistas.

Introducción: La utilización de copiar, tapar y comparar se ha señalado cómo un procedimiento de intervención efectivo en el aula. El presente caso examina la utilización de dicha estrategia en relación con hechos matemáticos de un estudiante con dificultades de aprendizaje.Objetivos: El propósito de esta investigación fue incrementar la eficacia y disminuir la tasa de error en la visión/escritura de dígitos utilizados en la multiplicación utilizando la estrategia de copiar, tapar y comparar. Un segundo objetivo fue utilizar un procedimiento de corrección de los errores utilizando dicha estrategia y evaluar los efectos.Método: El participante era un estudiante de cuarto curso con dificultades de aprendizaje que había tenido problemas en el área de matemáticas. Tras el establecimiento de la línea base se implementó el procedimiento de pegar, tapar y comparar. Por último, la corrección del error fue añadida al procedimiento de copiar, tapar y comparar.Resultados: Los resultados generales indicaron un aumento de las respuestas correctas y una disminución de los errores mediante el uso del copiar, tapar y comparar. Cuando copiar, tapar y comparar se combinó con la corrección del error, las respuestas correctas aumentaron y los errores disminuyeron. La facilidad también aumentó con la corrección de errores.Discusión: La evidencia encontrada en el presente informe indica que la eficacia del procedimiento de copiar, tapar y pegar. Cuando se utiliza de forma adicional la corrección de errores, la eficacia del procedimiento se incrementa. Por último, se discuten los beneficios, así como las dificultades, para que profesorado y alumnado utilicen la estrategia de copiar, tapar y comparar con y sin corrección de errores.

The effects of the Add-A-Word Spelling Program was examined in two experiments with mildly handicapped middle school students. In Experiment I, the Add-A-Word program with daily testing of small word lists; drill through the copy, cover, and compare method; a high level of mastery before words were removed from the student's list; and reappearance of mastered words, was evaluated with a multiple baseline design across three students. The data indicated improved performance on daily spelling tests when the Add-A-Word system was implemented. The purpose of Experiment II was to compare the Add-A-Word spelling program to the more traditional Monday Pre- and end of the week Posttest spelling procedures found in most classrooms. The comparisons were made in a counterbalanced multiple baseline design across six students. The students' overall accuracy in spelling was higher during the Add-A-Word Program than during either Baseline (daily testing) or the Preand Posttest systems. However, student's spelling scores were also higher during the Pre-Posttest procedure than during the Baseline condition. Benefits of the Add-A-Word spelling program for middle school students were discussed.

The effects of a personalized system of instruction (PSI) with and without a same day retake contingency on the spelling performance of 10 behaviorally disordered students were evaluated. The results indicate more spelling lessons were passed with 100% accuracy when the PSI program was in effect. A further increase in the number of lessons passed occurred when retakes were allowed each day. Individual data for three selected students indicate that their performance in creased with PSI and PSI with retakes. From items on a questionnaire adminis tered to students, it was found that the students felt their spelling test performance was higher during the PSI program. The students preferred the PSI spelling pro gram to that of the traditional preand posttest spelling procedure (Baseline 1 and 2). The class also preferred the retake component over the non-retake component in the PSI spelling program. Recommendations for classroom use of personalized systems of instruction (PSI) are made. The use of personalized systems of instruction (PSI) at the college or university level has been well documented in the literature (Hursh, 1976; Johnson, 1975; Semb, 1974, 1975; Williams, 1976). There has also been evidence that PSI has benefited student achievement in courses ranging from biology to law (Johnson, 1975). According to Williams (1976) there are several components in a personalized system of instruction. These include (a) written study objectives, (b) division of the course content into small units of material, (c) use of the written word, (d) student self-pacing through the curricula, (e) a high mastery criteria to ad vance to the next unit of material, (f) immediate feedback as to performance on exams or quizzes, and (g) the use of student proctors or tutors. The data from the college instruction literature have indicated that allowing students the opportunity to retake exams until a high mastery level of performance improved course grades, and the students preferred such a procedure (Bostow & Blumenfeld, 1972; Malott, 1984). College students will also complete remedial quizzes when minimal course credit is given for less than A level performance (Bostow & Blumenfeld, 1972; Malott, 1984). There is ample evidence as to the effectiveness of PSI at the college and university level, but minimal evidence for the effects of PSI with respect to quiz frequency, same-day re takes, mastery criteria, pacing of instruction, and so forth at the elementary grade school level. McLaughlin and Malaby (1975) reported that students in the sixth grade could improve their grades in a social studies course taught by a PSI format. Also, the students preferred PSI to that of the more traditional teaching in social studies. McLaughlin and Malaby (1974) also found that student performance in a commercially available map reading skills program could be improved with the use of teacher pacing procedures. In a related study, Lovitt and his co-workers have presented data that indicate that one component of PSI, written study objectives, is helpful to middle school mildly handicapped students in science and social studies (Horton & Lovitt, in press; Horton, Lovitt, Givens, Nelson, 1989; Lovitt & Horton, 1987; Lovitt, Rudsit, Jenkins, Pious, & Benedetti, 1985). While PSI has been shown to be Portions of this data were presented at the Northern California Association for Behavior Analysis, San Francisco, March 1989. Requests for reprints should be addressed to the author. A special note of thanks is offered to Florence Orvik for allowing this research in her school, and to Mary Dolliver for all of her assistance. Behavioral Disorders February 1991 [Vol. 16 No. 2 127-132] 127 This content downloaded from 207.46.13.111 on Sun, 22 May 2016 05:23:55 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms effective in various classroom settings, there is scant evidence available with respect to its effectiveness with elementary special education children. The present study examines the use of PSI with behaviorally disordered students. The purpose of the study was threefold: (a) to compare the effectiveness of the frequency of available quizzes component of PSI (Retakes versus No Same-Day Retakes), (b) to con trast PSI to the more traditional manner of teaching spelling at the elementary school level (Monday Pretest and Friday Posttest), and (c) to examine student perceptions and prefer ences for the various experimental manipulations at the end of the study.

DI flashcards have been proven be improve student performance in a wide range of subject matter-areas. Students with memory issues may well benefit from being taught with DI flashcards. Employing a count-by series has been employed by classroom teachers to teach multiplication. Count-bys can provide students an easy transition from addition to multiplication. This project implemented DI flashcards with a count by series to improve the performance of a single elementary school student having difficulty in math. These two procedures were evaluated in an ABABCB single case design. The results indicated that our participant’s performance increased when these two procedures were combined. Finally generalization was carried out with new math facts. When DI flashcards and the count by series charts were again employed with his new math facts, his performance quickly increased. Suggestions for future research employing DI flashcards and generalization of treatment outcomes were also provided.

The effects of assisted reading on 3 elementary students with learning disabilities were evaluated using a multiple baseline design. Data were collected from the students' oral reading from their basal texts. The results indicated an increase in number of words read correctly as well as a decrease in the number of words read incorrectly when assisted reading was used in the classroom.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a Direct Instruction (DI) flashcard system on the mastery of the multiplication facts by a 14-year-old boy with learning and behavioral issues. The participant attended a low-income high school located in a large urban area in the Pacific Northwest. A changing criterion design was employed to evaluate the efficacy of DI flashcards. When DI flashcards were employed, the performance increased and the participant met or was close to criterion for each criterion ceiling. The DI flashcard procedure was easy to implement and evaluate, and the current paper includes suggestions for additional research with DI flashcards at the high school level.

The effect of response cost and public posting as a group contingency procedure to reduce the number of inappropriate behaviors of an entire elementary school population during teacher supervision times was examined. Specific misbehaviors that represented breach of established school rules were counted. Each class was given 10 points per day during the intervention and a student who displayed an inappropriate behavior lost a point for his or her class. Winning classes were those that had accumulated 45 or more points at the end of each week. A multiple baseline design was used across the primary and intermediate grade levels of the school to assess the effects of the intervention. The results indicated that the number of inappropriate behaviors was reduced when each negative behavior resulted in point loss to an individual’s class. This procedure was cost and time efficient, used available school personnel, and was effective in reducing inappropriate student behaviors during supervision times.

This study compares the system of presenting ail spelling words at the beginning of the week and testing at the end of the week with a system of presenting a portion of the words each day and daily testing. Academic performance of 13 fourth-grade students in a combination fourth- and fifth-grade classroom was measured by recording scores on weekly spelling tests. The results reveal a significant increase in spelling performance on the weekly tests when students receive a portion of their spelling words each day. Questionnaires given to the students and parents indicate that they felt a positive change in both effort and academic achievement when the students were distributed and tested daily on a portion of the words.

The control of classroom behavior has been well documented in the literature (Hanley, 1970; Kazdin & Bootzin, 1972; O'Leary & Drabman, 1971). However, as several researchers have pointed out, a great deal of human behavior is controlled and maintained without apparent immediate external consequences (Bandura, 1969, 1971; Kanfer, 1971; Kanfer & Karoly, 1972; Mahoney & Thoresen, 1974; Thoresen & Mahoney, 1974). The management of one's own behavior has been recently suggested as a promising and powerful behavioral technology. The use of self-control procedures, where pupils manage and control their own behavior in classroom settings, has recently increased in popularity, even though the idea that pupils should control their own classroom behavior is not new. The child's control of his own behavior has been listed as one objective of the educational process (Lovitt & Curtiss, 1969). Because of a recent trend to develop self-control procedures in school settings, the purpose of this paper is to examine the application of self

The effects of modeling vocabulary words using a tape recorder on six high-school learning disabled boys' sight-word reading were examined in a multiple-baseline design. Response rates were first scored during the Baseline condition when no tape recorder was used. No teacher modeling was given. Later response rates were measured during the Taped-Words condition after a tape recording only provided a model for correctly pronounced words. Results indicated an increase in correct oral response rates of isolated word lists and a sharp decrease in each student's oral error rates. Implications of the findings are drawn both for practitioners working with learning disabled students and for others involved with reading tasks. The results indicate that the students were able independently to improve their response rates through the use of the tape recorder alone, thus freeing the teacher for other kinds of instruction.

The effects of a free-time contingency on the grammar skills of nine mildly handicapped adolescent male students were investigated. A multiple baseline design across subject pairs was used to evalu...

The effects of a peer-tutoring procedure on the spelling behavior of a mainstreamed elementary-school learning disabled student were investigated in an AB single-subject design. Overall results indicated that the subject obtained greater accuracy on the spelling tests during the peer-tutoring condition than during the baseline condition. Self-reports and ratings on the treatment indicated that both the peer tutor and the tutored student felt they had improved their spelling performance.

A procedure was employed that enabled a teacher to bring inappropriate verbalizations under control in a classroom of approximately 25 fifth- and sixth-grade students. Contingent point loss for inappropriate verbalizations was correlated with a low but steady rate of such verbalizations. Point gain contingent upon quiet behavior produced a marked decrease in inappropriate verbalizations. A return to contingent point loss was accompanied by an increasing rate of inappropriate verbalizations. Verbalizations decreased when quiet behavior was reinforced again. A noteworthy feature of the study was the utilization of students from within the class to act as data recorders. A reliability check indicated satisfactory agreement between the recorders.

An inexpensive, easily managed token economy was used in a normal classroom for one academic year, and data were collected for the entire academic performance in spelling, language, handwriting, and math for that year. During a baseline period, assignment completion was variable. The introduction of a token economy with a point exchange every five days increased assignment completion and decreased variability of performance. An application of a token economy that had a point exchange averaging four days was accompanied by an assignment completion rate that approximated 100%. A reinforcement contingency for which quiet behavior rather than for assignment completion was eased quiet behavior was accompanied by a marked diminution of assignment completion. A reintroduction of the token reinforcement for assignment completion system increased assignment completion again.