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Shadowing trajectories are model trajectories consistent with a sequence of observations of a system, given a distribution of observational noise. The existence of such trajectories is a desirable property of any forecast model. Gradient descent of indeterminism is a well-established technique for finding shadowing trajectories in low-dimensional analytical systems. Here we apply it to the thermally-driven rotating annulus, a laboratory experiment intermediate in model complexity and physical idealisation between analytical systems and global, comprehensive atmospheric models. We work in the perfect model scenario using the MORALS model to generate a sequence of noisy observations in a chaotic flow regime. We demonstrate that the gradient descent technique recovers a pseudo-orbit of model states significantly closer to a model trajectory than the initial sequence. Gradient-free descent is used, where the adjoint model is set to $\lambda$I in the absence of a full adjoint model. The indeterminism of the pseudo-orbit falls by two orders of magnitude during the descent, but we find that the distance between the pseudo-orbit and the initial, true, model trajectory reaches a minimum and then diverges from truth. We attribute this to the use of the $\lambda$-adjoint, which is well suited to noise reduction but not to finely-tuned convergence towards a model trajectory. We find that $\lambda=0.25$ gives optimal results, and that candidate model trajectories begun from this pseudo-orbit shadow the observations for up to 80 s, about the length of the longest timescale of the system, and similar to expected shadowing times based on the distance between the pseudo-orbit and the truth. There is great potential for using this method with real laboratory data., Comment: This paper was originally prepared for submission in 2011; but, after Part I was not accepted, it was not submitted. It has not been peer-reviewed. We no longer have the time or resources to work on this topic, but would like this record of our work to be available for others to read, cite, and follow up. 22 pages, 11 figures

Probability forecasting is common in the geosciences, the finance sector, and elsewhere. It is sometimes the case that one has multiple probability-forecasts for the same target. How is the information in these multiple forecast systems best "combined"? Assuming stationary, then in the limit of a very large forecast-outcome archive, each model-based probability density function can be weighted to form a "multi-model forecast" which will, in expectation, provide the most information. In the case that one of the forecast systems yields a probability distribution which reflects the distribution from which the outcome will be drawn, then Bayesian Model Averaging will identify this model as the number of forecast-outcome pairs goes to infinity. In many applications, like those of seasonal forecasting, data are precious: the archive is often limited to fewer than $2^6$ entries. And no perfect model is in hand. In this case, it is shown that forming a single "multi-model probability forecast" can be expected to prove misleading. These issues are investigated using probability forecasts of a simple mathematical system, which allows most limiting behaviours to be quantified.

Predictive skill of complex models is often not uniform in model-state space; in weather forecasting models, for example, the skill of the model can be greater in populated regions of interest than in "remote" regions of the globe. Given a collection of models, a multi-model forecast system using the cross pollination in time approach can be generalised to take advantage of instances where some models produce systematically more accurate forecast of some components of the model-state. This generalisation is stated and then successfully demonstrated in a moderate ~40 dimensional nonlinear dynamical system suggested by Lorenz. In this demonstration four imperfect models, each with similar global forecast skill, are used. Future applications in weather forecasting and in economic forecasting are discussed. The demonstration establishes that cross pollinating forecast trajectories to enrich the collection of simulations upon which the forecast is built can yield a new forecast system with significantly more skills than the original multi-model forecast system.

Berliner (Likelihood and Bayesian prediction for chaotic systems, J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 1991) identified a number of difficulties in using the likelihood function within the Bayesian paradigm which arise both for state estimation and for parameter estimation of chaotic systems. Even when the equations of the system are given, he demonstrated "chaotic likelihood functions" both of initial conditions and of parameter values in the Logistic Map. Chaotic likelihood functions, while ultimately smooth, have such complicated small scale structure as to cast doubt on the possibility of identifying high likelihood states in practice. In this paper, the challenge of chaotic likelihoods is overcome by embedding the observations in a higher dimensional sequence-space; this allows good state estimation with finite computational power. An importance sampling approach is introduced, where Pseudo-orbit Data Assimilation is employed in the sequence-space, first to identify relevant pseudo-orbits and then relevant trajectories. Estimates are identified with likelihoods orders of magnitude higher than those previously identified in the examples given by Berliner. Pseudo-orbit Data Assimilation importance sampler exploits the information both from the model dynamics and from the observations. While sampling from the relevant prior (here, the natural measure) will, of course, eventually yield an accountable sample, given the realistic computational resource this traditional approach would provide no high likelihood points at all. While one of the challenges Berliner posed is overcome, his central conclusion is supported. "Chaotic likelihood functions" for parameter estimation still pose a challenge; this fact helps clarify why physical scientists maintain a strong distinction between the initial condition uncertainty and parameter uncertainty.

Dynamical modelling lies at the heart of our understanding of physical systems. Its role in science is deeper than mere operational forecasting, in that it allows us to evaluate the adequacy of the mathematical structure of our models. Despite the importance of model parameters, there is no general method of parameter estimation outside linear systems. A new relatively simple method of parameter estimation for nonlinear systems is presented, based on variations in the accuracy of probability forecasts. It is illustrated on the Logistic Map, the Henon Map and the 12-D Lorenz96 flow, and its ability to outperform linear least squares in these systems is explored at various noise levels and sampling rates. As expected, it is more effective when the forecast error distributions are non-Gaussian. The new method selects parameter values by minimizing a proper, local skill score for continuous probability forecasts as a function of the parameter values. This new approach is easier to implement in practice than alternative nonlinear methods based on the geometry of attractors or the ability of the model to shadow the observations. New direct measures of inadequacy in the model, the "Implied Ignorance" and the information deficit are introduced., Comment: 17 pages, 5 figures, Keywords: parameter estimation, Ignorance, Implied Ignorance, Minimum Ignorance, nonlinear dynamical system, skill score, dynamically consistent ensemble, model inadequacy, least squares, information deficit, potential predictability, predictability

Empirical modelling often aims for the simplest model consistent with the data. A new technique is presented which quantifies the consistency of the model dynamics as a function of location in state space. As is well-known, traditional statistics of nonlinear models like root-mean-square (RMS) forecast error can prove misleading. Testing consistency is shown to overcome some of the deficiencies of RMS error, both within the perfect model scenario and when applied to data from several physical systems using previously published models. In particular, testing for consistent nonlinear dynamics provides insight towards (i) identifying when a delay reconstruction fails to be an embedding, (ii) allowing state dependent model selection and (iii) optimising local neighbourhood size. It also provides a more relevant (state dependent) threshold for identifying false nearest neighbours., Comment: 40 pages, 14 figures

A new approach to nonlinear modelling is presented which, by incorporating the global behaviour of the model, lifts shortcomings of both least squares and total least squares parameter estimates. Although ubiquitous in practice, a least squares approach is fundamentally flawed in that it assumes independent, normally distributed (IND) forecast errors: nonlinear models will not yield IND errors even if the noise is IND. A new cost function is obtained via the maximum likelihood principle; superior results are illustrated both for small data sets and infinitely long data streams., Comment: RevTex, 11 pages, 4 figures

Process-based agricultural models, applied in novel ways, can reproduce historical crop yield anomalies in the US, with median absolute deviation from observations of 6.7% at national-level and 11% at state-level. In seasons for which drought is the overriding factor, performance is further improved. Historical counterfactual scenarios for the 1988 and 2012 droughts show that changes in agricultural technologies and management have reduced system-level drought sensitivity in US maize production by about 25% in the intervening years. Finally, we estimate the economic costs of the two droughts in terms of insured and uninsured crop losses in each US county (for a total, adjusted for inflation, of $9 billion in 1988 and $21.6 billion in 2012). We compare these with cost estimates from the counterfactual scenarios and with crop indemnity data where available. Model based measures are capable of accurately reproducing the direct agro-economic losses associated with extreme drought and can be used to characterize and compare events that occurred under very different conditions. This work suggests new approaches to modeling, monitoring, forecasting, and evaluating drought impacts on agriculture, as well as evaluating technological changes to inform adaptation strategies for future climate change and extreme events.

The purpose of this practicum was to make secondary school teachers more aware of their own behavior with children as individuals and to bring about change in a direction perceived by teachers, students, and the practicum designer to be positive rather than negative. One hundred twenty grade 7 students were selected to make up the Mentor Program group (experimental) and 120 grade 7 students were identified as the Comparative group (control). The Mentor Program children were involved with faculty Mentors during the school year. The Comparative group received no special kind of treatment. Throughout the school year the Mentors and children met as individual and group needs dictated. Each of the 240 students was administered the Student Attitudinal Instruments in the fall (pretest) and spring (posttest). The responses were then analyzed. The Mentors monitored their own behavior for negative acts. Questionnaires were also developed for the student and faculty groups, and the responses were analyzed. The investigations showed that the teacher group involved in the program improved their classroom behavior and that the child's perception of the teacher also improved. (RC)

The report describes the design of opportunity-expanding and equitable career progression systems for hourly paid industrial workers in two midwest plants, and the organizational (corporate, plant, union) barriers to changes in existing systems. These were shown to be restricting and often inequitable. The report concludes that theoretically sound progression models can be designed but that implementation of anything other than training and counseling calls for a different state of "readiness" than that found in the two plants. Most probably, the report states, this can only be achieved if the top corporate and International Union officials, jointly, work with plant and local union officials to change seniority clauses in the collective bargaining agreement and plant customary practice. The rationale for the work described in the report was that the design and introduction of career progression systems within a major multi-plant manufacturing corporation would provide high visibility for a successful project, providing insight into transferability of career progression designs from plant to plant and deal with problems fundamental to the effective utilization of the labor force in the United States. (Author/MW)

The lack of visible career paths was universally recognized as a major factor leading to the extraordinarily high rate of turnover and absenteeism in the foodservice industry. The report evaluates the potential of a National Trade Association as a vehicle for improvements in this area and focuses on National Restaurant Association (NRA) efforts in upgrading nonmanagement employees. Adoption of more rational systems was perceived to be a long term objective. The report describes the design of career progression systems for three segments of the industry: Institutional Food Service, Commercial Restaurants, and Hotel Foodservice. However, given the historical attitudes of the industry toward its manpower, the short-term return of one-step upgrading and related training is apparently much more acceptable to management. The report concludes that National Trade Associations similar to NRA representing primarily small establishments with no formal manpower planning facilities or experience, should be encouraged to serve their members essentially as educators showing the industry how to improve career opportunities. (Author/MW)