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Lars Christian Haugli Bråten,1 Elisabeth Gjefsen,1,2 Kristina Gervin,1 Are Hugo Pripp,3 Jan Sture Skouen,4 Elina Schistad,5 Linda Margareth Pedersen,1 Monica Wigemyr,1 Kaja Kristine Selmer,1 Hans Christian Dalsbotten Aass,6 Guro Goll,7 Jens Ivar Brox,5 Ansgar Espeland,8,9 Lars Grøvle,10 John-Anker Zwart,1,2 Kjersti Storheim1,11 On behalf of The AIM-study group1Department of Research and Innovation, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Oslo University Hospital HF, Oslo, Norway; 2Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; 3Oslo Centre of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Research Support Services, Oslo University Hospital Ulleval, Oslo, Norway; 4Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway; 5Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Oslo University Hospital HF, Oslo, Norway; 6Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; 7Center for Treatment of Rheumatic and Musculoskeletal Diseases (REMEDY), Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway; 8Department of Radiology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway; 9Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; 10Department of Rheumatology, Østfold Hospital Trust, Grålum, Norway; 11Oslo Metropolitan University, Department of Physiotherapy, Oslo, NorwayCorrespondence: Lars Christian Haugli Bråten, Tel +4722117769, Email l.c.h.braten@studmed.uio.noObjective: Randomized trials testing the effect of antibiotics for chronic low back pain (LBP) with vertebral bone marrow changes on MRI (Modic changes) report inconsistent results. A proposed explanation is subgroups with low grade discitis where antibiotics are effective, but there is currently no method to identify such subgroups. The objective of the present study was to evaluate whether distinct patterns of serum cytokine levels predict any treatment effect of oral amoxicillin at one-year follow-up in patients with chronic low back pain and Modic changes at the level of a previous lumbar disc herniation.Design: We used data from an overpowered, randomized, placebo-controlled trial (the AIM study) that tested 100 days of oral 750 mg amoxicillin vs placebo three times daily in hospital outpatients with chronic (> 6 months) LBP with pain intensity ≥ 5 on a 0– 10 numerical rating scale and Modic changes type 1 (oedema type) or 2 (fatty type). We measured serum levels of 40 inflammatory cytokines at baseline and analysed six predefined potential predictors of treatment effect based on cytokine patterns in 78 randomized patients; three analyses with recursive partitioning, one based on cluster analysis and two based on principal component analyses. The primary outcome was the Roland–Morris Disability Questionnaire score at one-year follow-up in the intention to treat population. The methodology and overall results of the AIM study were published previously.Results: The 78 patients were 25– 62 years old and 47 (60%) were women. None of the three recursive partitioning analyses resulted in any suggested subgroups. Of all main analyses, the largest effect estimate (mean difference between antibiotic and placebo groups) was seen in a subgroup not predefined as of main interest (Cluster category 3+4; − 2.0, 95% CI: − 5.2– 1.3, RMDQ points; p-value for interaction 0.54).Conclusion: Patterns of inflammatory serum cytokine levels did not predict treatment effect of amoxicillin in patients with chronic LBP and Modic changes.Clinical Trial Registration Number: ClinicalTrials.gov (identifier: NCT02323412).Keywords: low back pain, Modic changes, infection, cytokines, inflammation

Objective: Ketogenic diets like the modified Atkins diet (MAD) are increasingly used in patients with refractory epilepsy. For epilepsy patients, stress is a well-known seizure-precipitating factor. New possibilities for measuring biomarkers of stress are now available. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of MAD on endocrine stress biomarkers., Methods: Forty-nine patients with drug-resistant epilepsy were investigated at baseline and after 12 weeks on MAD. Cortisol and cortisol-binding globulin (CBG) were measured and free cortisol index (FCI) calculated. We also measured metanephrine, normetanephrine, and methoxytyramine, all markers of epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine, respectively. Changes were analyzed according to sex and antiseizure medications. The different markers at baseline and after 12 weeks of MAD treatment were correlated with seizure frequency and weight loss, respectively., Results: The change in total cortisol was modest after 12 weeks on the diet (from 432.9 nmol/L (403.1-462.7)) to 422.6 nmol/L (384.6-461.0), P = 0.6). FCI was reduced (from 0.39 (0.36-0.42) to 0.34 (0.31-0.36), P = 0.001). CBG increased during the study (from 1126.4 nmol/L (1074.5-1178.3) to 1272.5 nmol/L (1206.3-1338.7), P < 0.001). There were no changes in the metanephrines after 12 weeks on the diet. The decrease in FCI was significant only in women, and only observed in patients using nonenzyme-inducing ASMs. We did not find any correlation between cortisol, CBG, or FCI levels and seizure frequency., Significance: After being on MAD for 12 weeks, FCI decreased significantly. The reduction in FCI may reflect reduced stress, but it may also be an effect of increased CBG. The reasons behind these alterations are unknown. Possibly, the changes may be a result of a reduction in insulin resistance and thyroid hormone levels. Treatment with MAD does not seem to influence "fight or flight" hormones., (© 2023 The Authors. Epilepsia Open published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

Elevated impulsivity is a key component of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder and juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME). We performed a genome-wide association, colocalization, polygenic risk score, and pathway analysis of impulsivity in JME (n = 381). Results were followed up with functional characterisation using a drosophila model. We identified genome-wide associated SNPs at 8q13.3 (P = 7.5 × 10 -9 ) and 10p11.21 (P = 3.6 × 10 -8 ). The 8q13.3 locus colocalizes with SLCO5A1 expression quantitative trait loci in cerebral cortex (P = 9.5 × 10 -3 ). SLCO5A1 codes for an organic anion transporter and upregulates synapse assembly/organisation genes. Pathway analysis demonstrates 12.7-fold enrichment for presynaptic membrane assembly genes (P = 0.0005) and 14.3-fold enrichment for presynaptic organisation genes (P = 0.0005) including NLGN1 and PTPRD. RNAi knockdown of Oatp30B, the Drosophila polypeptide with the highest homology to SLCO5A1, causes over-reactive startling behaviour (P = 8.7 × 10 -3 ) and increased seizure-like events (P = 6.8 × 10 -7 ). Polygenic risk score for ADHD genetically correlates with impulsivity scores in JME (P = 1.60 × 10 -3 ). SLCO5A1 loss-of-function represents an impulsivity and seizure mechanism. Synaptic assembly genes may inform the aetiology of impulsivity in health and disease., (© 2023. Springer Nature Limited and Centre of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdulaziz University.)

Objective: To examine the potential influence of a ketogenic diet on serum concentrations of antiseizure medications (ASMs) in children with drug resistant epilepsy., Methods: We investigated the serum concentrations of ASMs in 25 children with drug resistant epilepsy, 2-13 years of age, treated with a classical ketogenic diet for 12 weeks. The patients were recruited from the National Centre for Epilepsy from August 15th, 2017, to January 24th, 2022. Changes in ASM serum concentrations were analyzed using a mixed effect model analysis. Significance level was set at P < 0.05 for all comparisons., Results: The participants used 12 different ASMs during the study. The mean number of ASMs was 2.4 (±SD 0.7). None of the participants changed the type or dose of the ASMs during the intervention period. The serum concentrations of clobazam (n = 9, P = 0.002), desmethylclobazam (n = 9, P = 0.010), and lamotrigine (n = 6, P = 0.016) decreased significantly during the dietary treatment. The analytes with the largest reduction in serum concentration after 12 weeks of dietary treatment were clobazam (mean change -38%) and desmethylclobazam (mean change -37%). We found no significant change in the serum concentrations of levetiracetam, topiramate, and valproic acid., Significance: We identified a significant decrease in the serum concentrations of clobazam, desmethylclobazam, and lamotrigine following a 12-week ketogenic diet intervention in children with drug resistant epilepsy. An unintended decrease in the serum concentrations of ASMs may render the patient prone to seizures. Measurements of ASM serum concentrations might be useful in patients on a ketogenic diet, especially in patients with lack of efficacy of the dietary treatment., (© 2023 The Authors. Epilepsia Open published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

Purpose: Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in people with epilepsy is high. However, diagnostic validity and information about the nature of the seizure disorders are often poor in population-based studies. In a well validated and classified patient sample, we investigated psychiatric comorbidity according to clinical characteristics., Method: Participants in The Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT) with ≥ 2 diagnostic epilepsy codes during 1987-2019 were identified. Medical records were reviewed, and epilepsy was validated and classified according to ILAE. Psychiatric comorbidity was defined by ICD-codes., Results: In 448 individuals with epilepsy, 35% had at least one psychiatric disorder (anxiety and related disorders 23%, mood disorders 15%, substance abuse and personality disorders 7%, and psychosis 3%). Comorbidity was significantly higher in women than in men (p = 0.007). The prevalence of psychiatric disorders was 37% in both focal and generalized epilepsy. In focal epilepsy, it was significantly lower when etiology was structural (p = 0.011), whereas it was higher when the cause was unknown (p = 0.024). Comorbidity prevalence was 35% both in patients achieving seizure freedom and in those with active epilepsy but 38% among 73 patients with epilepsy resolved., Conclusion: Just over one third of people with epilepsy had psychiatric comorbidities. The prevalence was equal in focal and generalized epilepsy but was significantly higher in focal epilepsy of unknown cause compared to lesional epilepsy. Comorbidity was independent of seizure control at last follow-up but was slightly more common in those with resolved epilepsy, often having non-acquired genetic etiologies possibly linked to neuropsychiatric susceptibility., Competing Interests: Declarations of Competing Interest The authors have no competing interests to declare., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Reliable definitions, classifications and prognostic models are the cornerstones of stratified medicine, but none of the current classifications systems in epilepsy address prognostic or outcome issues. Although heterogeneity is widely acknowledged within epilepsy syndromes, the significance of variation in electroclinical features, comorbidities and treatment response, as they relate to diagnostic and prognostic purposes, has not been explored. In this paper, we aim to provide an evidence-based definition of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy showing that with a predefined and limited set of mandatory features, variation in juvenile myoclonic epilepsy phenotype can be exploited for prognostic purposes. Our study is based on clinical data collected by the Biology of Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy Consortium augmented by literature data. We review prognosis research on mortality and seizure remission, predictors of antiseizure medication resistance and selected adverse drug events to valproate, levetiracetam and lamotrigine. Based on our analysis, a simplified set of diagnostic criteria for juvenile myoclonic epilepsy includes the following: (i) myoclonic jerks as mandatory seizure type; (ii) a circadian timing for myoclonia not mandatory for the diagnosis of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy; (iii) age of onset ranging from 6 to 40 years; (iv) generalized EEG abnormalities; and (v) intelligence conforming to population distribution. We find sufficient evidence to propose a predictive model of antiseizure medication resistance that emphasises (i) absence seizures as the strongest stratifying factor with regard to antiseizure medication resistance or seizure freedom for both sexes and (ii) sex as a major stratifying factor, revealing elevated odds of antiseizure medication resistance that correlates to self-report of catamenial and stress-related factors including sleep deprivation. In women, there are reduced odds of antiseizure medication resistance associated with EEG-measured or self-reported photosensitivity. In conclusion, by applying a simplified set of criteria to define phenotypic variations of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, our paper proposes an evidence-based definition and prognostic stratification of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy. Further studies in existing data sets of individual patient data would be helpful to replicate our findings, and prospective studies in inception cohorts will contribute to validate them in real-world practice for juvenile myoclonic epilepsy management., Competing Interests: G.R. received speaker honoraria from UCB, EISAI, Arvelle and consultancy honoraria from Ology Medical Education. C.P.B. received honoraria from UCB, EISAI and Arvelle and travel support from Arvelle. K.K.S. received speaker honoraria and travel support from UCB. M.S. received speakers honoraria from EISAI and Angelini Pharma. R.T. received honoraria from Arvelle/Angelini, Bial, Eisai, GW/Jazz, Sanofi, UCB Pharma, UNEEG, Zogenix., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain.)

Ketogenic diet, a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet, is an established treatment for patients with severe epilepsy. We have previously reported a moderate reduction in seizure frequency after treatment with a modified Atkins diet. This study aimed to see whether dietary therapy impacts patients' health-related quality of life (HRQOL). In a randomized controlled design, we compared the change in self-reported HRQOL among adults with difficult-to-treat epilepsy after a 12-week diet intervention. Thirty-nine patients with drug-resistant focal epilepsy (age = 16-65 years) were randomized to eat a modified Atkins diet with maximum 16 g of carbohydrate per day (diet group, n = 19) or to continue eating habitual diet (control group, n = 20). No changes to the other epilepsy treatments were allowed. Patient-reported HRQOL was assessed with the Quality of Life in Epilepsy Inventory-89 (QOLIE-89). The diet group experienced a statistically significant improvement in mean total score of QOLIE-89 of 10 points compared to controls (p = .002). Moreover, although not statistically significant when using a cutoff of 50% seizure reduction, our data suggest an association between diet-induced reduction in seizure frequency and improvement in HRQOL. The improvement in HRQOL was not associated with diet-induced weight reduction., (© 2023 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Introduction: Moyamoya disease (MMD) is a chronic cerebrovascular steno-occlusive disease of largely unknown etiology. Variants in the RNF213 gene are strongly associated with MMD in East-Asia. In MMD patients of Northern-European origin, no predominant susceptibility variants have been identified so far., Research Question: Are there specific candidate genes associated with MMD of Northern-European origin, including the known RNF213 gene? Can we establish a hypothesis for MMD phenotype and associated genetic variants identified for further research?, Material and Methods: Adult patients of Northern-European origin, treated surgically for MMD at Oslo University Hospital between October 2018 to January 2019 were asked to participate. WES was performed, with subsequent bioinformatic analysis and variant filtering. The selected candidate genes were either previously reported in MMD or known to be involved in angiogenesis. The variant filtering was based on variant type, location, population frequency, and predicted impact on protein function., Results: Analysis of WES data revealed nine variants of interest in eight genes. Five of those encode proteins involved in nitric oxide (NO) metabolism: NOS3 , NR4A3, ITGAV, GRB7 and AGXT2 . In the AGXT2 gene, a de novo variant was detected, not previously described in MMD. None harboured the p.R4810K missense variant in the RNF213 gene known to be associated with MMD in East-Asian patients ., Discussion and Conclusion: Our findings suggest a role for NO regulation pathways in Northern-European MMD and introduce AGXT2 as a new susceptibility gene. This pilot study warrants replication in larger patient cohorts and further functional investigations., Competing Interests: MW: research grants from the 10.13039/501100006095South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority (grant number 2014060), ownership of stock Biontech/Pfizer, speaker honoraria from the 10.13039/100010745Norwegian Medical Association. The other authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Objectives: To explore serum cytokine levels over time in patients with chronic low back pain (cLBP) and Modic changes (MCs), difference in change between treatment groups in the Antibiotics in Modic Changes (AIM) study and associations between change in cytokines and low back pain., Methods: Serum concentrations of 39 cytokines were measured at baseline and 1 year from 73 participants in the AIM study; 30 randomized to placebo, 43 to Amoxicillin. Low back pain intensity was measured by numeric rating scale. Change in cytokine levels over time were assessed by paired t-tests. Difference in change in cytokine levels between treatment groups and associations between changes in LBP and cytokine levels were assessed by linear regression models. Networks of cytokine changes in each treatment groups were explored by Pearson's correlations., Results: Five cytokines changed from baseline to 1 year, (mean change, log transformed values with CI) C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL) 10 (IP-10) (0.11 (0.01-0.20)), CXCL13 (0.61 (0.00-0.12)), C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL)26 (0.05 (0.01-0.1)), granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (-0.12 (-0.23 to 0.00)) and CXCL11 (0.12 (0.03-0.22)). Treatment group only influenced change in CCL21 (β 0.07 (0.01-0.12)), and IL-6 (β -0.17 (-0.30 to -0.03)). Change in CXCL13 (β 2.43 (0.49-4.38)), CCL27 (β 3.07 (0.46-5.69)), IL-8 (β 1.83 (0.08-3.58)) and CCL19 (β 3.10 (0.86-5.43)) were associated with change in LBP. The correlation networks of cytokine changes demonstrate small differences between treatment groups., Conclusions: Cytokine levels are relatively stable over time in our sample, with little difference between treatment groups. Some cytokines may be associated with LBP intensity. The differences between the correlation networks suggest that long-term Amoxicillin-treatment may have longstanding effects to be further explored., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 copy number variant (CNV) is associated with altered brain morphology and risk for atypical development, including increased risk for schizophrenia and learning difficulties for the deletion. However, it is still unclear whether differences in brain morphology are associated with neurodevelopmental or neurodegenerative processes. This study derived morphological brain MRI measures in 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 deletion (n = 124) and duplication carriers (n = 142), and matched deletion-controls (n = 496) and duplication-controls (n = 568) from the UK Biobank study to investigate the association with brain morphology and estimates of brain ageing. Further, we examined the ageing trajectory of age-affected measures (i.e., cortical thickness, surface area, subcortical volume, reaction time, hand grip strength, lung function, and blood pressure) in 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 CNV carriers compared to non-carriers. In this ageing population, the results from the machine learning models showed that the estimated brain age gaps did not differ between the 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 CNV carriers and non-carriers, despite deletion carriers displaying thicker cortex and lower subcortical volume compared to the deletion-controls and duplication carriers, and lower surface area compared to the deletion-controls. Likewise, the 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 CNV carriers did not deviate from the ageing trajectory on any of the age-affected measures examined compared to non-carriers. Despite altered brain morphology in 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 CNV carriers, the results did not show any clear signs of apparent altered ageing in brain structure, nor in motor, lung or heart function. The results do not indicate neurodegenerative effects in 15q11.2 BP1-BP2 CNV carriers., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Background: A third of people with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) are drug-resistant. Three-quarters have a seizure relapse when attempting to withdraw anti-seizure medication (ASM) after achieving seizure-freedom. It is currently impossible to predict who is likely to become drug-resistant and safely withdraw treatment. We aimed to identify predictors of drug resistance and seizure recurrence to allow for individualised prediction of treatment outcomes in people with JME., Methods: We performed an individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis based on a systematic search in EMBASE and PubMed - last updated on March 11, 2021 - including prospective and retrospective observational studies reporting on treatment outcomes of people diagnosed with JME and available seizure outcome data after a minimum one-year follow-up. We invited authors to share standardised IPD to identify predictors of drug resistance using multivariable logistic regression. We excluded pseudo-resistant individuals. A subset who attempted to withdraw ASM was included in a multivariable proportional hazards analysis on seizure recurrence after ASM withdrawal. The study was registered at the Open Science Framework (OSF; https://osf.io/b9zjc/)., Findings: Our search yielded 1641 articles; 53 were eligible, of which the authors of 24 studies agreed to collaborate by sharing IPD. Using data from 2518 people with JME, we found nine independent predictors of drug resistance: three seizure types, psychiatric comorbidities, catamenial epilepsy, epileptiform focality, ethnicity, history of CAE, family history of epilepsy, status epilepticus, and febrile seizures. Internal-external cross-validation of our multivariable model showed an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0·70 (95%CI 0·68-0·72). Recurrence of seizures after ASM withdrawal (n = 368) was predicted by an earlier age at the start of withdrawal, shorter seizure-free interval and more currently used ASMs, resulting in an average internal-external cross-validation concordance-statistic of 0·70 (95%CI 0·68-0·73)., Interpretation: We were able to predict and validate clinically relevant personalised treatment outcomes for people with JME. Individualised predictions are accessible as nomograms and web-based tools., Funding: MING fonds., Competing Interests: AAA received a grant from the 10.13039/501100012155National Institute for Medical Research Development, royalties for a book publication from 10.13039/501100007723Oxford University Press, and speaker fees from Cobel Daruo, Tekaje, and Raymand Rad. CPB received research grants and honoraria from 10.13039/100011110UCB and 10.13039/501100003769Eisai, support for attending meetings by UCB, and served in the advisory board of Arvelle. CDB received consulting fees and honoraria from 10.13039/100014114GW Pharmaceuticals, 10.13039/100015661UCB Pharma, 10.13039/501100003769Eisai, 10.13039/501100006546Angelini Pharma and Bial. JPS received grants from the 10.13039/100000002National Institutes of Health, 10.13039/100000005Department of Defense, and the 10.13039/100000001National Science Foundation; and consulting fees from 10.13039/100015661UCB Pharma, AdCel Biopharma, LLC, iFovea, SK Life Sciences, and 10.13039/100013410LivaNova; and has stock options for iFovea and AdCel Biopharma. LEH-V participates in the Young Epilepsy Society, received speaker honorario from Armstrong, and was supported by Abbott pharmaceuticals to attend the Mexican Congress of Neurology. NP received honoraria from Zogenix and Ethos for Angelini Pharma. NS received honoraria from Biomarin, Livanova, GW Pharma, Zogenix and Marinus; and support to attend meetings from Livanova, GW Pharma and Zogenix; and participated on a data safety monitoring board for Marinus. SB received speaker fees from Eisai. PK received lecture honorarium from UCB Pharma and Eisai, consulting fees from 10.13039/501100003769Eisai and 10.13039/100013410LivaNova and his institution received research grants from 10.13039/100015661UCB Pharma and 10.13039/501100003769Eisai. MS received speaker honoraria from UCB Pharma and Eisai. KKS received research grants from the 10.13039/501100005416Norwegian Research Council, the DAMFoundation and the Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Rare diseases; and a networking grant from the 10.13039/501100004785NordForsk Foundation; and she acted as a paid PhD defense opponent at the University of Bergen, and attended a meeting for Nordic clinicians organised by Eisai. BJV received grants from the 10.13039/501100007870German Society for Epileptology and the 10.13039/501100001659Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft; and honoraria from University Medical Center Schleswig–Holstein and Cornelsen Verlag. MH received consulting fees and honoraria from Arvelle, Bial, Desitin, Eisai, GW Pharmaceuticals, UCB Pharma, and Zogenix. FvP has received speaker honoraria from Bial, Eisai, GW Pharmaceutical companies, Angelinipharma, Zogenix and UCB Pharma; and scientific advisory board honoraria from GW Pharmaceutical companies, UCB Pharma, and Angelinipharma. WD's salary is part-funded by The University of Melbourne; he has received travel, investigator-initiated, scientific advisory board and speaker honoraria from UCB Pharma Australia and Global; investigator-initiated, scientific advisory board, travel and speaker honoraria from Eisai Australia and Global; advisory board honoraria from Liva Nova and Tilray; educational grants from Novartis Pharmaceuticals, 10.13039/100014476Pfizer Pharmaceuticals and Sanofi-Synthelabo; educational; travel and fellowship grants from GSK Neurology Australia, and honoraria from SciGen Pharmaceuticals; and he has an equity interest in the device company EpiMinder. CPB received honaries and research support from EISAI, UCB and Arvelle. ET received speaker's honoraria from Arvelle, Abbott, Angelini Pharma, UCB, Biogen, Gerot-Lannacher, Bial, Eisai, Epilog, Takeda, Newbridge, Hikma, GW Pharmaceuticals, Sunovion Pharmaceuticals Inc., LivaNova and Novartis; consultancy funds from 10.13039/501100006546Angelini Pharma, Argenix, Arvelle, Epilog, 10.13039/100011110UCB, 10.13039/100005614Biogen, Gerot-Lannach, Bial, 10.13039/501100003769Eisai, 10.13039/100007723Takeda, Newbridge, 10.13039/100014114GW Pharmaceuticals, 10.13039/100009655Sunovion Pharmaceuticals Inc., Marinus, and 10.13039/100004336Novartis; directorship funds from Neuroconsult GmbH. ET's Institution received grants from 10.13039/100005614Biogen, Red Bull, 10.13039/100004334Merck, 10.13039/100011110UCB, 10.13039/501100000780European Union, FWF Österreichischer Fond zur Wissenschaftsförderung, and 10.13039/501100007148Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft und Forschung. JWS reports personal fees from Arvelle, personal fees from 10.13039/100011110UCB, grants from UCB, grants from 10.13039/100003997NEF, grants from UCB, personal fees from 10.13039/100012739Zogenix, grants from GW Phama, outside the submitted work; and his current position is endowed by the Epilepsy Society, he is a member of the Editorial Board of the Lancet Neurology, and receives research support from the Marvin Weil Epilepsy Research Fund. All other authors declare no potential competing interests. None of the above mentioned declarations represent a conflict of interest directly related to the present publication., (© 2022 The Author(s).)

Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the modified ketogenic diet on DNA methylation in adults with epilepsy., Methods: In this prospective study, we investigated the genome-wide DNA methylation in whole blood in 58 adults with epilepsy treated with the modified ketogenic for 12 weeks. Patients were recruited from the National Center for Epilepsy, Norway, from March 1, 2011 to February 28, 2017. DNA methylation was analyzed using the Illumina Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip array. Analysis of variance and paired t-test were used to identify differentially methylated loci after 4 and 12 weeks of dietary treatment. A false discovery rate approach with a significance threshold of <5% was used to adjust for multiple comparisons., Results: We observed a genome-wide decrease in DNA methylation, both globally and at specific sites, after 4 and 12 weeks of dietary treatment. A substantial share of the differentially methylated positions (CpGs) were annotated to genes associated with epilepsy (n = 7), lipid metabolism (n = 8), and transcriptional regulation (n = 10). Furthermore, five of the identified genes were related to inositol phosphate metabolism, which may represent a possible mechanism by which the ketogenic diet attenuates seizures., Significance: A better understanding of the modified ketogenic diet's influence at the molecular level may be the key to unraveling the mechanisms by which the diet can ameliorate seizures and possibly to identifying novel therapeutic targets for epilepsy., (© 2022 The Authors. Epilepsia published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

Introduction: Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEE) is a group of epilepsies where the epileptic activity, seizures and the underlying neurobiology contributes to cognitive and behavioral impairments. Uncovering the causes of DEE is important in order to develop guidelines for treatment and follow-up. The aim of the present study was to describe the clinical picture and to identify genetic causes in a patient cohort with DEE without known etiology, from a Norwegian regional hospital., Methods: Systematic searches of medical records were performed at Drammen Hospital, Vestre Viken Health Trust, to identify patients with epilepsy in the period 1999-2018. Medical records were reviewed to identify patients with DEE of unknown cause. In 2018, patients were also recruited consecutively from treating physicians. All patients underwent thorough clinical evaluation and updated genetic diagnostic analyses., Results: Fifty-five of 2,225 patients with epilepsy had DEE of unknown etiology. Disease-causing genetic variants were found in 15/33 (45%) included patients. Three had potentially treatable metabolic disorders ( SLC2A1, COQ4 and SLC6A8 ). Developmental comorbidity was higher in the group with a genetic diagnosis, compared to those who remained undiagnosed. Five novel variants in known genes were found, and the patient phenotypes are described., Conclusion: The results from this study illustrate the importance of performing updated genetic investigations and/or analyses in patients with DEE of unknown etiology. A genetic cause was identified in 45% of the patients, and three of these patients had potentially treatable conditions where available targeted therapy may improve patient outcome., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Stenshorne, Syvertsen, Ramm-Pettersen, Henning, Weatherup, Bjørnstad, Brüggemann, Spetalen, Selmer and Koht.)

A potential link between GABRD encoding the δ subunit of extrasynaptic GABAA receptors and neurodevelopmental disorders has largely been disregarded due to conflicting conclusions from early studies. However, we identified seven heterozygous missense GABRD variants in 10 patients with neurodevelopmental disorders and generalized epilepsy. One variant occurred in two sibs of healthy parents with presumed somatic mosaicism, another segregated with the disease in three affected family members, and the remaining five occurred de novo in sporadic patients. Electrophysiological measurements were used to determine the functional consequence of the seven missense δ subunit variants in receptor combinations of α1β3δ and α4β2δ GABAA receptors. This was accompanied by analysis of electroclinical phenotypes of the affected individuals. We determined that five of the seven variants caused altered function of the resulting α1β3δ and α4β2δ GABAA receptors. Surprisingly, four of the five variants led to gain-of-function effects, whereas one led to a loss-of-function effect. The stark differences between the gain-of-function and loss-of function effects were mirrored by the clinical phenotypes. Six patients with gain-of-function variants shared common phenotypes: neurodevelopmental disorders with behavioural issues, various degrees of intellectual disability, generalized epilepsy with atypical absences and generalized myoclonic and/or bilateral tonic-clonic seizures. The EEG showed qualitative analogies among the different gain-of-function variant carriers consisting of focal slowing in the occipital regions often preceding irregular generalized epileptiform discharges, with frontal predominance. In contrast, the one patient carrying a loss-of-function variant had normal intelligence and no seizure history, but has a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and suffers from elevated internalizing psychiatric symptoms. We hypothesize that increase in tonic GABA-evoked current levels mediated by δ-containing extrasynaptic GABAA receptors lead to abnormal neurotransmission, which represent a novel mechanism for severe neurodevelopmental disorders. In support of this, the electroclinical findings for the gain-of-function GABRD variants resemble the phenotypic spectrum reported in patients with missense SLC6A1 (GABA uptake transporter) variants. This also indicates that the phenomenon of extrasynaptic receptor overactivity is observed in a broader range of patients with neurodevelopmental disorders, because SLC6A1 loss-of-function variants also lead to overactive extrasynaptic δ-containing GABAA receptors. These findings have implications when selecting potential treatment options, as a substantial portion of available antiseizure medication act by enhancing GABAergic function either directly or indirectly, which could exacerbate symptoms in patients with gain-of-function GABRD variants., (© The Author(s) (2021). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate whether the modified Atkins diet (MAD), a variant of the ketogenic diet, has an impact on bone- and calcium (Ca) metabolism., Methods: Two groups of adult patients with pharmacoresistant epilepsy were investigated. One, the diet group (n = 53), was treated with MAD for 12 weeks, whereas the other, the reference group (n = 28), stayed on their habitual diet in the same period. All measurements were performed before and after the 12 weeks in both groups. We assessed bone health by measuring parathyroid hormone (PTH), Ca, 25-OH vitamin D (25-OH vit D), 1,25-OH vitamin D (1,25-OH vit D), phosphate, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and the bone turnover markers procollagen type 1 N-terminal propeptide (P1NP) and C-terminal telopeptide collagen type 1 (CTX-1). In addition, we examined the changes of sex hormones (estradiol, testosterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone), sex hormone-binding globulin, and leptin., Results: After 12 weeks of MAD, we found a significant reduction in PTH, Ca, CTX-1, P1NP, 1,25-OH vit D, and leptin. There was a significant increase in 25-OH vit D. These changes were most pronounced among patients <37 years old, and in those patients with the highest body mass index (≥25.8 kg/m²), whereas sex and type of antiseizure medication had no impact on the results. For the reference group, the changes were nonsignificant for all the analyses. In addition, the changes in sex hormones were nonsignificant., Significance: Twelve weeks of MAD treatment leads to significant changes in bone and Ca metabolism, with a possible negative effect on bone health as a result. A reduced level of leptin may be a triggering mechanism. The changes could be important for patients on MAD, and especially relevant for those patients who receive treatment with MAD at an early age before peak bone mass is reached., (© 2022 The Authors. Epilepsia published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

The hereditary ataxias are a heterogenous group of disorders with an increasing number of causative genes being described. Due to the clinical and genetic heterogeneity seen in these conditions, the majority of such individuals endure a diagnostic odyssey or remain undiagnosed. Defining the molecular etiology can bring insights into the responsible molecular pathways and eventually the identification of therapeutic targets. Here, we describe the identification of biallelic variants in the GEMIN5 gene among seven unrelated families with nine affected individuals presenting with spastic ataxia and cerebellar atrophy. GEMIN5, an RNA-binding protein, has been shown to regulate transcription and translation machinery. GEMIN5 is a component of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) complexes and helps in the assembly of the spliceosome complexes. We found that biallelic GEMIN5 variants cause structural abnormalities in the encoded protein and reduce expression of snRNP complex proteins in patient cells compared with unaffected controls. Finally, knocking out endogenous Gemin5 in mice caused early embryonic lethality, suggesting that Gemin5 expression is crucial for normal development. Our work further expands on the phenotypic spectrum associated with GEMIN5- related disease and implicates the role of GEMIN5 among patients with spastic ataxia, cerebellar atrophy, and motor predominant developmental delay., Competing Interests: FM is employed by GeneDx (MD, USA). JF conducts Clinical Trials with Biogen (Angelman’s Syndrome). JF’s spouse is Founder and Principal of Friedman Bioventure, which holds a variety of publicly traded and private biotechnology interests. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Rajan, Kour, Fortuna, Cousin, Barnett, Niu, Babovic-Vuksanovic, Klee, Kirmse, Innes, Rydning, Selmer, Vigeland, Erichsen, Nemeth, Millan, DeVile, Fawcett, Legendre, Sims, Schnekenberg, Burglen, Mercier, Bakhtiari, Francisco-Velilla, Embarc-Buh, Martinez-Salas, Wigby, Lenberg, Friedman, Kruer and Pandey.)

Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) is a common idiopathic generalised epilepsy with variable seizure prognosis and sex differences in disease presentation. Here, we investigate the combined epidemiology of sex, seizure types and precipitants, and their influence on prognosis in JME, through cross-sectional data collected by The Biology of Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (BIOJUME) consortium. 765 individuals met strict inclusion criteria for JME (female:male, 1.8:1). 59% of females and 50% of males reported triggered seizures, and in females only, this was associated with experiencing absence seizures (OR = 2.0, p < 0.001). Absence seizures significantly predicted drug resistance in both males (OR = 3.0, p = 0.001) and females (OR = 3.0, p < 0.001) in univariate analysis. In multivariable analysis in females, catamenial seizures (OR = 14.7, p = 0.001), absence seizures (OR = 6.0, p < 0.001) and stress-precipitated seizures (OR = 5.3, p = 0.02) were associated with drug resistance, while a photoparoxysmal response predicted seizure freedom (OR = 0.47, p = 0.03). Females with both absence seizures and stress-related precipitants constitute the prognostic subgroup in JME with the highest prevalence of drug resistance (49%) compared to females with neither (15%) and males (29%), highlighting the unmet need for effective, targeted interventions for this subgroup. We propose a new prognostic stratification for JME and suggest a role for circuit-based risk of seizure control as an avenue for further investigation., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Sturge-Weber syndrome (SWS) is a neurocutaneous disorder characterized by vascular malformations affecting skin, eyes and leptomeninges of the brain, which can lead to glaucoma, seizures and intellectual disability. The discovery of a disease-causing somatic missense mutation in the GNAQ gene, encoding an alpha chain of heterotrimeric G-proteins, has initiated efforts to understand how G-proteins contribute to SWS pathogenesis. The mutation is predominantly detected in endothelial cells and is currently believed to affect downstream MAPK signalling. In this study of six Norwegian patients with classical SWS, we aimed to identify somatic mutations through deep sequencing of DNA from skin biopsies. Surprisingly, one patient was negative for the GNAQ mutation, but instead harbored a somatic mutation in GNB2 (NM&#95;005273.3:c.232A>G, p.Lys78Glu), which encodes a beta chain of the same G-protein complex. The positions of the mutant amino acids in the G-protein are essential for complex reassembly. Therefore, failure of reassembly and continuous signalling is a likely consequence of both mutations. Ectopic expression of mutant proteins in endothelial cells revealed that expression of either mutant reduced cellular proliferation, yet regulated MAPK signalling differently, suggesting that dysregulated MAPK signalling cannot fully explain the SWS phenotype. Instead, both mutants reduced synthesis of Yes-associated protein (YAP), a transcriptional co-activator of the Hippo signalling pathway, suggesting a key role for this pathway in the vascular pathogenesis of SWS. The discovery of the GNB2 mutation sheds novel light on the pathogenesis of SWS and suggests that future research on targets of treatment should be directed towards the YAP, rather than the MAPK, signalling pathway., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press.)

Background: Low back pain (LBP) is a leading cause of disability worldwide, but the aetiology remains poorly understood. Finding relevant biomarkers may lead to better understanding of disease mechanisms. Patients with vertebral endplate bone marrow lesions visualised on MRI as Modic changes (MCs) have been proposed as a distinct LBP phenotype, and inflammatory mediators may be involved in the development of MCs., Objectives: To identify possible serum biomarkers for LBP in patients with MCs., Methods: In this case control study serum levels of 40 cytokines were compared between patients with LBP and MC type 1 (n=46) or type 2 (n=37) and healthy controls (n=50)., Results: Analyses identified significantly higher levels of six out of 40 cytokines in the MC type 1 group (MC1), and five in the MC type 2 group (MC2) compared with healthy controls. Six cytokines were moderately correlated with pain. Principal component analyses revealed clustering and separation of patients with LBP and controls, capturing 40.8% of the total variance, with 10 cytokines contributing to the separation. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) alone accounted for 92% of the total contribution. Further, receiver operating characteristics analysis revealed that MIF showed an acceptable ability to distinguish between patients and controls (area under the curve=0.79)., Conclusions: These results suggest that cytokines may play a role in LBP with MCs. The clinical significance of the findings is unknown. MIF strongly contributed to clustering of patients with LBP with MCs and controls, and might be a biomarker for MCs. Ultimately, these results may guide future research on novel treatments for this patient group., Competing Interests: Competing interests: LG has received honoraria from AbbVie, Boehringer Ingelheim, Celltrion, Novartis, Lilly, Orion Pharma, Pfizer, and Sandoz, outside the submitted work., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2021. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

GEMIN5, an RNA-binding protein is essential for assembly of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein complex and facilitates the formation of small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), the building blocks of spliceosomes. Here, we have identified 30 affected individuals from 22 unrelated families presenting with developmental delay, hypotonia, and cerebellar ataxia harboring biallelic variants in the GEMIN5 gene. Mutations in GEMIN5 perturb the subcellular distribution, stability, and expression of GEMIN5 protein and its interacting partners in patient iPSC-derived neurons, suggesting a potential loss-of-function mechanism. GEMIN5 mutations result in disruption of snRNP complex assembly formation in patient iPSC neurons. Furthermore, knock down of rigor mortis, the fly homolog of human GEMIN5, leads to developmental defects, motor dysfunction, and a reduced lifespan. Interestingly, we observed that GEMIN5 variants disrupt a distinct set of transcripts and pathways as compared to SMA patient neurons, suggesting different molecular pathomechanisms. These findings collectively provide evidence that pathogenic variants in GEMIN5 perturb physiological functions and result in a neurodevelopmental delay and ataxia syndrome.

Objective: Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct that can predispose to psychopathology. Meta-analysis demonstrates an association between response impulsivity and Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (JME), a common genetic generalized epilepsy. Here, we test the hypotheses that trait impulsivity is (i) elevated in JME compared to controls; (ii) moderated by specific seizure characteristics; and (iii) associated with psychiatric adverse effects of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)., Methods: 322 participants with JME and 126 age and gender-matched controls completed the Barratt's Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-brief) alongside information on seizure history and AED use. We compared group BIS-brief scores and assessed associations of JME BIS-brief scores with seizure characteristics and AED adverse effects., Results: The mean BIS-brief score in JME was 18.1 ± 4.4 compared with 16.2 ± 4.1 in controls (P = 0.0007). Elevated impulsivity was associated with male gender (P = 0.027), frequent absence seizures (P = 0.0004) and lack of morning predominance of myoclonus (P = 0.008). High impulsivity significantly increased the odds of a psychiatric adverse event on levetiracetam (P = 0.036), but not any other psychiatric or somatic adverse effects., Interpretation: Trait impulsivity is elevated in JME and comparable to scores in personality and neurotic disorders. Increased seizure frequency and absence of circadian seizure pattern moderate BIS score, suggesting disruption of both cortico-striatal and thalamocortical networks as a shared mechanism between seizures and impulsivity in JME. These findings warrant consideration of impulsivity as a distinct target of intervention, and as a stratifying factor for AED treatment in JME, and perhaps other types of epilepsy. The role of impulsivity in treatment adherence and psychosocial outcome requires further investigation., (© 2020 The Authors. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Neurological Association.)

Background and Aims: Morphological changes in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis (mTLE-HS) are well-characterized. Yet, it remains elusive whether these are a consequence of seizures or originate from a hitherto unknown underlying pathology. We recently published data on changes in gene expression and DNA methylation in the ipsilateral hippocampus (ILH) using the intracortical kainate mouse model of mTLE-HS. In order to explore the effects of epileptic activity alone and also to further disentangle what triggers morphological alterations, we investigated glial and neuronal changes in gene expression and DNA methylation in the contralateral hippocampus (CLH). Methods: The intracortical kainic acid mouse model of mTLE-HS was used to elicit status epilepticus. Hippocampi contralateral to the injection site from eight kainate-injected and eight sham mice were extracted and shock frozen at 24 h post-injection. Glial and neuronal nuclei were sorted by flow cytometry. Alterations in gene expression and DNA methylation were assessed using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing and RNA sequencing. The R package edgeR was used for statistical analysis. Results: The CLH featured substantial, mostly cell-specific changes in both gene expression and DNA methylation in glia and neurons. While changes in gene expression overlapped to a great degree between CLH and ILH, alterations in DNA methylation did not. In the CLH, we found a significantly lower number of glial genes up- and downregulated compared to previous results from the ILH. Furthermore, several genes and pathways potentially involved in anti-epileptogenic effects were upregulated in the CLH. By comparing gene expression data from the CLH to previous results from the ILH (featuring hippocampal sclerosis), we derive potential upstream targets for epileptogenesis, including glial Cox2 and Cxcl10 . Conclusion: Despite the absence of morphological changes, the CLH displays substantial changes in gene expression and DNA methylation. We find that gene expression changes related to potential anti-epileptogenic effects seem to dominate compared to the pro-epileptogenic effects in the CLH and speculate whether this imbalance contributes to prevent morphological alterations like neuronal death and reactive gliosis., (Copyright © 2020 Berger, Vigeland, Hjorthaug, Nome, Taubøll, Selmer and Heuser.)

Background: Low back pain is common and a significant number of patients experience chronic low back pain. Current treatment options offer small to moderate effects. Patients with vertebral bone marrow lesions visualized as Modic changes on magnetic resonance imaging may represent a subgroup within the low back pain population. There is evidence for inflammatory mediators being involved in development of Modic changes; hence, suppression of inflammation could be a treatment strategy for these patients. This study examines the effect of anti-inflammatory treatment with the TNF-α inhibitor infliximab in patients with chronic low back pain and Modic changes., Methods/design: The BackToBasic trial is a multicenter, double blind, randomized controlled trial conducted at six hospitals in Norway, comparing intravenous infusions with infliximab with placebo. One hundred twenty-six patients aged 18-65 with chronic low back pain and type 1 Modic changes will be recruited from secondary care outpatients' clinics. The primary outcome is back pain-specific disability at day 154 (5 months). The study is designed to detect a difference in change of 10 (SD 18) in the Oswestry Disability Index at day 154/ 5 months. The study also aims to refine MRI-assessment, investigate safety and cost-effectiveness and explore the underlying biological mechanisms of Modic changes., Discussion: Finding treatments that target underlying mechanisms could pose new treatment options for patients with low back pain. Suppression of inflammation could be a treatment strategy for patients with low back pain and Modic changes. This paper presents the design of the BackToBasic study, where we will assess the effect of an anti-inflammatory treatment versus placebo in patients with chronic low back pain and type 1 Modic changes. The study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov under the identifier NCT03704363 . The EudraCT Number: 2017-004861-29.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to characterize current clinical and genetic knowledge of patients with inherited retinal disease in Norway and give an estimate of the prevalence. These data are necessary to identify patients eligible for new personalized medicines, to facilitate genetic counselling for their families and to plan clinical follow-up., Methods: A patient registry including clinical and genetic data was established. Clinical data were retrieved during 2003-2018. Genetic testing was performed in the period 2007-2018., Results: The material included 866 patients with 41 clinical diagnoses at the cut-off date. The most prevalent diseases were as follows: retinitis pigmentosa (54%), Stargardt macular dystrophy (6.5%) and Leber congenital amaurosis (5.2%). A genetic diagnosis was identified in 32% of patients. In total, 207 disease-causing variants in 56 genes were reported. The most commonly reported disease-causing genes were ABCA4, USH2A and BEST1. The estimated adjusted minimum prevalence of inherited retinal disease in the south-east region of Norway was 1: 3,856 (2.6/10 000)., Conclusion: This population-based study demonstrated an estimated prevalence for all inherited retinal diseases in south-east Norway and described the distribution of clinical diagnoses, onset of symptoms, inheritance patterns and genetic data and thereby expands our knowledge of inherited retinal disease in Norway. The newly established registry and biobank will support patient feasibility for future clinical trials, treatment selection and counselling of families., (© 2019 The Authors. Acta Ophthalmologica published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica Foundation.)

Background and Aims: Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy is characterized by progressive changes of both neurons and glia, also referred to as epileptogenesis. No curative treatment options, apart from surgery, are available. DNA methylation (DNAm) is a potential upstream mechanism in epileptogenesis and may serve as a novel therapeutic target. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate epilepsy-related DNAm, gene expression (GE) and their relationship, in neurons and glia., Methods: We used the intracortical kainic acid injection model to elicit status epilepticus. At 24 hours post injection, hippocampi from eight kainic acid- (KA) and eight saline-injected (SH) mice were extracted and shock frozen. Separation into neurons and glial nuclei was performed by flow cytometry. Changes in DNAm and gene expression were measured with reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) and mRNA-sequencing (mRNAseq). Statistical analyses were performed in R with the edgeR package., Results: We observed fulminant DNAm- and GE changes in both neurons and glia at 24 hours after initiation of status epilepticus. The vast majority of these changes were specific for either neurons or glia. At several epilepsy-related genes, like HDAC11, SPP1, GAL, DRD1 and SV2C, significant differential methylation and differential gene expression coincided., Conclusion: We found neuron- and glia-specific changes in DNAm and gene expression in early epileptogenesis. We detected single genetic loci in several epilepsy-related genes, where DNAm and GE changes coincide, worth further investigation. Further, our results may serve as an information source for neuronal and glial alterations in both DNAm and GE in early epileptogenesis., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objective: The aim was to examine the influence of modified Atkins diet on serum concentration of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)., Methods: Prospective data from 63 adult patients with either focal or generalized drug-resistant epilepsy recruited to 12-week dietary treatment as add-on to AEDs are analyzed. AED serum concentrations, ketones, glucose, and hemoglobin A1c were measured before and after the dietary intervention. Paired t test was used and Spearman correlation coefficient, r, was estimated., Results: Mean age was 37 years (range 16-65 years). Mean serum concentrations of carbamazepine, clobazam, and valproate were significantly reduced after 4 and 12 weeks of the diet period (<.001 ≤ P ≤ .02). Levels of lacosamide, lamotrigine, and topiramate were less reduced (.02 ≤ P ≤ .08), whereas the serum concentrations of oxcarbazepine, zonisamide, and levetiracetam were unchanged (.06 ≤ P ≤ .90). The largest reduction in serum concentration was found for clobazam: mean reduction after 12 weeks was 1.5 μmol/L (34%). Percent change in serum concentration after 4 and 12 weeks of all drugs analyzed was -10.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] -14.1 to -6.8; n = 60; P < .001) and -13.5% (95% CI -18.8 to -8.3; n = 56; P < .001), respectively. Percent change in serum concentration of AEDs was not significantly correlated to percent change in seizure frequency after 12 weeks of dietary treatment (r = .14, P = .33, n = 53) but negatively correlated to urine ketosis (r = -.43; P = .003; n = 46)., Significance: A reduction in AED serum concentrations may counteract a seizure-reducing effect of the diet, and in patients without such an effect, it may cause seizure aggravation. Thus, we recommend that clinicians who are treating patients with ketogenic diets monitor serum concentrations of the concomitant AEDs., (© 2019 The Authors. Epilepsia published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency is a rare mitochondrial disease leading to energy deficiency in the cells. This particularly affects the central nervous system, resulting in a broad range of neurological symptoms.

Autoimmune Addison's disease (AAD) is a classic organ-specific autoimmune disease characterized by an immune-mediated attack on the adrenal cortex. As most autoimmune diseases, AAD is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and probably interactions between the two. Persistent viral infections have been suggested to play a triggering role, by invoking inflammation and autoimmune destruction. The inability of clearing infections can be due to aberrations in innate immunity, including mutations in genes involved in the recognition of conserved microbial patterns. In a whole exome sequencing study of anonymized AAD patients, we discovered several rare variants predicted to be damaging in the gene encoding Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3). TLR3 recognizes double stranded RNAs, and is therefore a major factor in antiviral defense. We here report the occurrence and functional characterization of five rare missense variants in TLR3 of patients with AAD. Most of these variants occurred together with a common TLR3 variant that has been associated with a wide range of immunopathologies. The biological implications of these variants on TLR3 function were evaluated in a cell-based assay, revealing a partial loss-of-function effect of three of the rare variants. In addition, rare mutations in other members of the TLR3-interferon (IFN) signaling pathway were detected in the AAD patients. Together, these findings indicate a potential role for TLR3 and downstream signaling proteins in the pathogenesis in a subset of AAD patients., (© 2019 The Authors.)

Objective: Ketogenic diets reduce seizures in children with drug-resistant epilepsy. Whether adults benefit from similar treatment has not been clarified. We therefore examined the efficacy of the modified Atkins diet in adults with drug-resistant focal epilepsy., Methods: We performed a randomized clinical trial (RCT) with patients >16 years who had at least 3 seizures per month despite having tried at least 3 antiepileptic drugs. They were randomized to either 12 weeks on the modified Atkins diet (diet group) or habitual diet (control group). Primary endpoint was a change in seizure frequency from baseline to the intervention period, comparing those on diet with controls., Results: We assigned 37 patients to the diet group and 38 to the control group. Nine of the patients in the diet group and 4 controls were excluded. Of those who completed the dietary intervention (n = 24), median seizure change was -1.0 (interquartile range [IQR] -13.7-8.8), while in the control group (n = 32) the median change was 4.5 (IQR -4.8-33.5). The median difference between the groups was -7.0 (95% confidence interval [CI] -37.0-3.0; P = .21). In the intention-to-treat analysis, the relative risk (RR) for achieving >50% seizure reduction was 1.8 (95% CI 0.3-10.2; P = .65), while for achieving >25% seizure reduction RR was 2.43 (95% CI 0.94-6.28; P = .06). We observed no serious adverse events., Significance: In this RCT investigating the effect of an adjunctive modified Atkins diet on seizure frequency in adults with difficult-to-treat focal epilepsy, we found a significant reduction in seizure frequency in the diet group compared to the controls, but only for moderate benefit (>25% seizure reduction) among those who completed the intervention. However, seizure response varied considerably between individuals, perhaps negatively influenced by a drop in serum concentrations of antiepileptic drugs., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2018 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Background: Renal angiomyolipomas (AMLs) are a major clinical feature in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). Spontaneous bleeding can be life threatening, and appropriate information and proper surveillance and management are important to limit morbidity and mortality. Because TSC is a rare disease, patients are at risk of suboptimal medical management. Our aim was to investigate patients' and parents' knowledge about renal angiomyolipomas (AMLs) in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) and to identify current routines for renal follow-up., Methods: A questionnaire survey was initiated by the French Reference Centre on TSC. It was distributed in France through university hospitals and the patients' association (2009-2011), and to patients registered by the Norwegian National Centre for Rare Epilepsy-Related Disorders (2013-2014). Contingency tables with Chi-Square test for independence (with Yates Continuity Correction) and Pearson-Chi-Square value were used for correlation statistics., Results: We included 357 patients (France, n=257; Norway n=100). Most participants knew that TSC is associated with AMLs. However, 42 % did not know about the risk of AMLrelated bleeding, and 37 % had been informed about the risk of bleeding only after the age of 15 years. Furthermore, 14 % did not know whether they themselves or their child had AMLs. Patients had less knowledge than parents. Medical consultations and patient associations were the main sources of information. Among 30 % of patients, renal imaging was not received at all, or not conducted every 1-3 years, as recommended by current guidelines. Regular imaging was more frequent in patients with AMLs < 15 years, than in patients with AMLs ≥ 15 years. Ultrasound was the most frequently used imaging modality., Conclusions: Knowledge of renal AML in TSC patients and their parents was lower than expected, and follow-up by renal imaging was suboptimal for a substantial proportion of patients. Patients and parents should be informed about the risk and symptoms of renal bleeding, at the latest when the patient is 15 years. Monitoring the growth of AMLs should be standardized to comply with guidelines. Transition between adolescence and adulthood is a high-risk period and ensuring appropriate follow-up at this time is particularly important.

Heterozygous mutations in KIDINS220 were recently suggested a cause of spastic paraplegia, intellectual disability, nystagmus and obesity. All patients carried terminal nonsense de novo mutations that seemed to escape nonsense-mediated mRNA decay. The mechanism for pathogenicity is yet unexplained, as it seems that heterozygous loss-of-function variants of KIDINS220 are generally well tolerated. We present a consanguineous couple who experienced four pregnancy terminations due to repeated findings in the fetuses comprising enlarged cerebral ventricles and limb contractures. Exome sequencing in two of the aborted fetuses revealed a shared homozygous frameshift variant in exon 24 in KIDINS220. Sanger sequencing of the variant in available family members showed complete segregation with the affection status, resulting in a LOD score of 2.5 under an autozygous inheritance model. mRNA studies revealed destruction of the original splice site, resulting in an out-of-frame transcript and introduction of a premature termination codon in exon 25. Premature termination codons in this position are likely to cause activation of nonsense-mediated mRNA decay and result in complete absence of KIDINS220 protein in individuals homozygous for the variant. The phenotype of the presented fetuses overlaps with findings in functional studies of knockout Kidins220 mice embryos that are non-viable with enlarged cerebral ventricles. The human fetuses also exhibit several similarities to the milder phenotype described in patients with heterozygous KIDINS220 mutations. We hence propose that the identified homozygous loss-of-function variant in KIDINS220 causes the phenotype in the presented fetuses, and that this represents a hitherto undescribed severe autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

PUF60 encodes a nucleic acid-binding protein, a component of multimeric complexes regulating RNA splicing and transcription. In 2013, patients with microdeletions of chromosome 8q24.3 including PUF60 were found to have developmental delay, microcephaly, craniofacial, renal and cardiac defects. Very similar phenotypes have been described in six patients with variants in PUF60, suggesting that it underlies the syndrome. We report 12 additional patients with PUF60 variants who were ascertained using exome sequencing: six through the Deciphering Developmental Disorders Study and six through similar projects. Detailed phenotypic analysis of all patients was undertaken. All 12 patients had de novo heterozygous PUF60 variants on exome analysis, each confirmed by Sanger sequencing: four frameshift variants resulting in premature stop codons, three missense variants that clustered within the RNA recognition motif of PUF60 and five essential splice-site (ESS) variant. Analysis of cDNA from a fibroblast cell line derived from one of the patients with an ESS variants revealed aberrant splicing. The consistent feature was developmental delay and most patients had short stature. The phenotypic variability was striking; however, we observed similarities including spinal segmentation anomalies, congenital heart disease, ocular colobomata, hand anomalies and (in two patients) unilateral renal agenesis/horseshoe kidney. Characteristic facial features included micrognathia, a thin upper lip and long philtrum, narrow almond-shaped palpebral fissures, synophrys, flared eyebrows and facial hypertrichosis. Heterozygote loss-of-function variants in PUF60 cause a phenotype comprising growth/developmental delay and craniofacial, cardiac, renal, ocular and spinal anomalies, adding to disorders of human development resulting from aberrant RNA processing/spliceosomal function.

Objective: Despite juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) being considered one of the most common epilepsies, population-based prevalence studies of JME are lacking. Our aim was to estimate the prevalence of JME in a Norwegian county, using updated diagnostic criteria., Methods: This was a cross-sectional study, based on reviews of the medical records of all patients with a diagnosis of epilepsy at Drammen Hospital in the period 1999-2013. The study population consisted of 98,152 people <30 years of age. Subjects diagnosed with JME, unspecified genetic generalized epilepsy, or absence epilepsy were identified. All of these patients were contacted and asked specifically about myoclonic jerks. Electroencephalography (EEG) recordings and medical records were reevaluated for those who confirmed myoclonic jerks. Information about seizure onset was obtained from the medical records, and annual frequency of new cases was estimated., Results: A total of 55 subjects fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for JME. The point prevalence was estimated at 5.6/10,000. JME constituted 9.3% of all epilepsies in the age group we investigated. Of subjects diagnosed with either unspecified genetic generalized epilepsy or absence epilepsy, 21% and 12%, respectively, had JME. We identified 21 subjects with JME (38%) who had not been diagnosed previously. Six subjects (11%) had childhood absence epilepsy evolving into JME. Between 2009 and 2013, the average frequency of JME per 100,000 people of all ages per year was estimated at 1.7., Significance: A substantial portion of people with JME seem to go undiagnosed, as was the case for more than one third of the subjects in this study. By investigating subjects diagnosed with unspecified genetic generalized epilepsy or absence epilepsy, we found a prevalence of JME that was considerably higher than previously reported. We conclude that JME may go undiagnosed due to the underrecognition of myoclonic jerks. To make a correct diagnosis, clinicians need to ask specifically about myoclonic jerks., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2016 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Progressive myoclonus epilepsy is a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by myoclonic and tonic-clonic seizures, ataxia and cognitive decline. We here present two affected brothers. At 9 months of age the elder brother developed ataxia and myoclonic jerks. In his second year he lost the ability to walk and talk, and he developed drug-resistant progressive myoclonus epilepsy. The cerebrospinal fluid level of glutamate was decreased while glutamine was increased. His younger brother manifested similar symptoms from 6 months of age. By exome sequencing of the proband we identified a novel homozygous frameshift variant in the potassium channel tetramerization domain 7 (KCTD7) gene (NM&#95;153033.1:c.696delT: p.F232fs), which results in a truncated protein. The identified F232fs variant is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, and the healthy consanguineous parents carry the variant in a heterozygous state. Bioinformatic analyses and structure modelling showed that KCTD7 is a highly conserved protein, structurally similar to KCTD5 and several voltage-gated potassium channels, and that it may form homo- or heteromultimers. By heterologous expression in Xenopus laevis oocytes, we demonstrate that wild-type KCTD7 hyperpolarizes cells in a K + dependent manner and regulates activity of the neuronal glutamine transporter SAT2 (Slc38a2), while the F232fs variant impairs K + fluxes and obliterates SAT2-dependent glutamine transport. Characterization of four additional disease-causing variants (R94W, R184C, N273I, Y276C) bolster these results and reveal the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of KCTD7-related progressive myoclonus epilepsy. Thus, our data demonstrate that KCTD7 has an impact on K + fluxes, neurotransmitter synthesis and neuronal function, and that malfunction of the encoded protein may lead to progressive myoclonus epilepsy., (© The Author (2016). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Aicardi syndrome (AS) is a well-characterized neurodevelopmental disorder with an unknown etiology. In this study, we performed whole-exome sequencing in 11 female patients with the diagnosis of AS, in order to identify the disease-causing gene. In particular, we focused on detecting variants in the X chromosome, including the analysis of variants with a low number of sequencing reads, in case of somatic mosaicism. For 2 of the patients, we also sequenced the exome of the parents to search for de novo mutations. We did not identify any genetic variants likely to be damaging. Only one single missense variant was identified by the de novo analyses of the 2 trios, and this was considered benign. The failure to identify a disease gene in this study may be due to technical limitations of our study design, including the possibility that the genetic aberration leading to AS is situated in a non-exonic region or that the mutation is somatic and not detectable by our approach. Alternatively, it is possible that AS is genetically heterogeneous and that 11 patients are not sufficient to reveal the causative genes. Future studies of AS should consider designs where also non-exonic regions are explored and apply a sequencing depth so that also low-grade somatic mosaicism can be detected.

Unlabelled: FILTUS is a stand-alone tool for working with annotated variant files, e.g. when searching for variants causing Mendelian disease. Very flexible in terms of input file formats, FILTUS offers efficient filtering and a range of downstream utilities, including statistical analysis of gene sharing patterns, detection of de novo mutations in trios, quality control plots and autozygosity mapping. The autozygosity mapping is based on a hidden Markov model and enables accurate detection of autozygous regions directly from exome-scale variant files., Availability and Implementation: FILTUS is written in Python and runs on Windows, Mac and Linux. Binaries and source code are freely available at http://folk.uio.no/magnusv/filtus.html and on GitHub: https://github.com/magnusdv/filtus Automatic installation is available via PyPI (e.g. pip install filtus)., Contact: magnusdv@medisin.uio.no, Supplementary Information: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online., (© The Author 2016. Published by Oxford University Press.)

Background: The genetic understanding of primary familial brain calcification (PFBC) has increased considerably in recent years due to the finding of causal genes like SLC20A2, PDGFRB and PDGFB. The phenotype of PFBC is complex and has as of yet been poorly delineated. The most common clinical presentations include movement disorders, cognitive symptoms and psychiatric conditions. We report a family including two sisters with brain calcifications due to a variant in SLC20A2 and generalized tonic-clonic seizures as the principal phenotypic trait., Methods: The affected siblings underwent whole exome sequencing and candidate variants and cosegregation in the family were validated by Sanger sequencing., Results: Both siblings and their asymptomatic father were heterozygous for a variant in SLC20A2. The siblings also had a variant in CHRNB2, a known epilepsy gene associated with autosomal dominant frontal lobe epilepsy, which they had inherited from the mother., Conclusions: To our knowledge, the reported siblings represent the third and fourth subjects with confirmed SLC20A2 variants exhibiting epilepsy as a phenotypic trait. Our findings support seizures as part of the phenotypic spectrum of SLC20A2-related PFBC. However, the present phenotype may also result from additional genetic influence, such as the identified missense variant in CHRNB2., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Background: Friedreich ataxia is an autosomal recessive hereditary spinocerebellar disorder, characterized by progressive limb and gait ataxia due to proprioceptive loss, often complicated by cardiomyopathy, diabetes and skeletal deformities. Friedreich ataxia is the most common hereditary ataxia, with a reported prevalence of 1:20 000 - 1:50 000 in Central Europe. Previous reports from south Norway have found a prevalence varying from 1:100 000 - 1:1 350 000; no studies are previously done in the rest of the country., Methods: In this cross-sectional study, Friedreich ataxia patients were identified through colleagues in neurological, pediatric and genetic departments, hospital archives searches, patients' associations, and National Centre for Rare Disorders. All included patients, carriers and controls were investigated clinically and molecularly with genotype characterization including size determination of GAA repeat expansions and frataxin measurements. 1376 healthy blood donors were tested for GAA repeat expansion for carrier frequency analysis., Results: Twenty-nine Friedreich ataxia patients were identified in Norway, of which 23 were ethnic Norwegian, corresponding to a prevalence of 1:176 000 and 1:191 000, respectively. The highest prevalence was seen in the north. Carrier frequency of 1:196 (95 % CI = [1:752-1:112]) was found. Homozygous GAA repeat expansions in the FXN gene were found in 27/29, while two patients were compound heterozygous with c.467 T < C, L157P and the deletion (g.120032&#95;122808del) including exon 5a. Two additional patients were heterozygous for GAA repeat expansions only. Significant differences in the level of frataxin were found between the included patients (N = 27), carriers (N = 37) and controls (N = 27)., Conclusions: In this first thorough study of a complete national cohort of Friedreich ataxia patients, and first nation-wide study of Friedreich ataxia in Norway, the prevalence of Friedreich ataxia in Norway is lower than in Central Europe, but higher than in the last Norwegian report, and as expected from migration studies. A south-north prevalence gradient is present. Based on Hardy Weinberg's equilibrium, the carrier frequency of 1:196 is consistent with the observed prevalence. All genotypes, and typical and atypical phenotypes were present in the Norwegian population. The patients were phenotypically similar to European cohorts. Frataxin was useful in the diagnostic work-up of heterozygous symptomatic cases.

Spastic paraplegia 7 is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding paraplegin, a protein located at the inner mitochondrial membrane and involved in the processing of other mitochondrial proteins. The mechanism whereby paraplegin mutations cause disease is unknown. We studied two female and two male adult patients from two Norwegian families with a combination of progressive external ophthalmoplegia and spastic paraplegia. Sequencing of SPG7 revealed a novel missense mutation, c.2102A>C, p.H 701P, which was homozygous in one family and compound heterozygous in trans with a known pathogenic mutation c.1454&#95;1462del in the other. Muscle was examined from an additional, unrelated adult female patient with a similar phenotype caused by a homozygous c.1047insC mutation in SPG7. Immunohistochemical studies in skeletal muscle showed mosaic deficiency predominantly affecting respiratory complex I, but also complexes III and IV. Molecular studies in single, microdissected fibres showed multiple mitochondrial DNA deletions segregating at high levels (38-97%) in respiratory deficient fibres. Our findings demonstrate for the first time that paraplegin mutations cause accumulation of mitochondrial DNA damage and multiple respiratory chain deficiencies. While paraplegin is not known to be directly associated with the mitochondrial nucleoid, it is known to process other mitochondrial proteins and it is possible therefore that paraplegin mutations lead to mitochondrial DNA deletions by impairing proteins involved in the homeostasis of the mitochondrial genome. These studies increase our understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of SPG7 mutations and suggest that SPG7 testing should be included in the diagnostic workup of autosomal recessive, progressive external ophthalmoplegia, especially if spasticity is present.

Aim: The aim of this study was to characterize patients diagnosed with glucose transporter protein-1 deficiency syndrome (GLUT-1 DS) clinically and genetically, and to evaluate the effect of treatment with the classic ketogenic or modified Atkins diet., Method: We retrospectively studied medical records of 10 patients diagnosed with GLUT-1 DS. Four females and six males with a median age of 15 years were included., Results: The study illustrates the genetic and clinical heterogeneity of GLUT-1 DS. Analysis of the SLC2A1 gene disclosed a variety of mutation types. The time between onset of symptoms and diagnosis was more than 11 years on average. The outcome in those with early diagnosis and intervention was surprisingly good. All but one patient with the classic phenotype became seizure free after treatment with the classic ketogenic or modified Atkins diet. Acetazolamide was effective in one patient with paroxysmal exercise-induced dyskinesia. A point prevalence of GLUT-1 DS in Norway was estimated as 2.6 per 1,000,000 inhabitants., Interpretation: Although the long-term prognosis in patients with GLUT-1 DS partly depends on the underlying genetics, our study supports the assumption that early initiation of treatment with a ketogenic diet may positively affect the outcome., (© The Authors. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology © 2013 Mac Keith Press.)

The 1q44 deletion syndrome has shown to be a recognizable phenotype with developmental delay, short stature and corpus callosum abnormalities as relatively consistent features. However, the disorder is still clinically heterogeneous and a genotype-phenotype correlation has been challenging to establish. In particular, a delineation of a critical region for the corpus callosum development has turned out to be difficult, and many candidate genes have been proposed. We present here a patient boy with a clinical picture of the 1q44 deletion syndrome, including a thin corpus callosum, and a small de novo 1q44 deletion. The deletion spans a maximum of 163 kb, a region which only contains the two genes FAM36A and HNRNPU. This finding supports the previously suggested hypothesis that the HNRNPU is an essential gene to the development of corpus callosum. However, as patients with deletions outside this interval also have been reported to have corpus callosum abnormalities, other mechanisms are probably also involved. We also identified two conserved non-coding regions in the deleted region of the patient, and speculate that also other elements interfere with the complex interplay and spatiotemporal gene expression during embryonic development., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Background: Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) is a generalised epilepsy with seizure onset in youth. The aim of this review is to present updated knowledge about the etiology, diagnosis and treatment of JME., Material and Method: The review is based on a judicious selection of original English language articles, meta-analyses, and reviews found in PubMed, and the authors' own experience with the patient group., Results: Seizure onset occurs in adolescence. All have myoclonias, about 90 % have generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and one third have absences. Myoclonic jerks are frequently the debut symptom, while tonic-clonic seizures appear later on. Patients are particularly susceptible to seizures shortly after waking. It is important to ask specifically about myoclonias as most patients do not report jerks spontaneously. The electroencephalograms of 44-81 % of the patients show discharges of 4-6 Hz polyspike waves. Focal EEG abnormalities may be seen in about 30 %. When patients are treated with valproate and seizure-precipitating factors are avoided, especially sleep deprivation, about 80 % become seizure-free. Lamotrigine and levetiracetam are alternative therapies for women of childbearing age. Attempts to taper off the medication after several years of seizure freedom entail a high risk of seizure relapse., Interpretation: As there may be features of focal epilepsy in the seizure semiology and/or the EEGs, it may be difficult to diagnose JME. Thus, many patients are misdiagnosed as having a focal epilepsy and are given antiepileptic drugs that may aggravate the tendency to seizures.

Background: Dravet syndrome is a severe, genetic epileptic encephalopathy with seizures starting during the first year of life. We present a review of the genetic and clinical picture along with treatment aspects., Material and Methods: This review is based on a non-systematic literature search in PubMed until April 2011 and the personal experiences of the authors., Results: Dravet syndrome should be suspected in children with febrile hemiconvulsions or tonic-clonic seizures in the first year of life. Non-febrile seizures also occur, and other seizure types gradually appear, e.g. myoclonic jerks, atypical absences or focal seizures. In adulthood the clinical picture is less characteristic. The clinical diagnosis is supported by genetic testing; 70-80% of the patients have mutations in the sodium channel subunit gene SCN1A. Seizure control is difficult to achieve, but valproate, benzodiazepines and stiripentol may cause improvement, whereas sodium channel blockers, such as lamotrigine and carbamazepine may aggravate the tendency towards seizures., Interpretation: Dravet syndrome appears to be an under-recognised condition among both children and adults with severe epilepsy and learning disability. Clinical information from the first years of life is essential in making the diagnosis. A correct diagnosis at an early age is essential for appropriate treatment and genetic counselling.