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The objective of this task was to present a large group of data on the suitability of selected industrial crops to marginal soils, helping to clarify the constraints associated with their cultivation under low-input practices. The experimental field trials included the following annual oil [industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), crambe (Crambe abyssinica Hochst.), camelina (Camelina sativa L.), Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Braun), castor (Ricinus communis L.)] and carbohydrate crops [biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)]; perennial, lignocellulosic, herbaceous, such as giant reed (Arundo donax L.), miscanthus (Miscanthus spp.), African fodder cane (Saccharum spontaneum L. spp. aegyptiacum Willd. Hackel), tall wheatgrass (Thinopyrum ponticum (Podp.) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), and woody crops [Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila L.) and willow (Salix spp.)]. Low-input agricultural practices were applied to the above industrial crops with the main aim to ascertain their performances in sites affected by biophysical limitations across Europe. European countries were grouped, according to the European climatic stratification proposed by Metzger et al. (2005), in three main agro-ecological zone: Mediterranean, Atlantic and Continental. Biophysical limitations are essentially those reported in the JRC study (Rossiter et al., 2014), which alone or in combination leads to negative synergies to crop yield. MAGIC, through this task, will provide hints on how the cultivation of these crops in marginal soils can mitigate indirect land-use change (iLUC) risks, in accordance with the sustainability criteria set in the Directive (EU) 2018/2001 and to meet the European Green Deal towards an EU climate neutral in 2050.

Contaminated land, that is unsuitable for food production, represents an alternative option for crops producing feedstock for bioproducts and bioenergy, which would otherwise be in competition with food production. It has been estimated that there are more than 10 million major contaminated sites worldwide, while in the European Economic Area (EEA)-39 countries the registered contaminated sites are up to 650000. Even though often perceived solely as a problem, contaminated areas could instead become a real asset that needs to be valued. One of the aims of MAGIC project was to screen the most promising industrial crops for cultivation on contaminated and saline soils. The effects of the heavy metals Cd, Pb, Ni and Zn on fifteen industrial crops were examined, namely on: biomass sorghum, camelina, cardoon, castor bean, crambe, Ethiopian mustard, giant reed, hemp, lupin, miscanthus x giganteus, pennycress, safflower, switchgrass, tall wheatgrass, and wild sugarcane (African fodder cane). The experiments were conducted following the same methodology and protocols by all partners involved.

The research objective of this study is the development of long-term sustainable Marginal Agricultural Land Low-Input Systems for industrial crop cultivation. And the research question of this study is: How bioenergy cropping systems of tomorrow could be made more sustainable under social-ecological terms. It was found that there are five main requirements for the development of social-ecologically more sustainable bioenergy cropping systems. And here, four of them are presented and discussed.

NRWStrategieprojekt BioSC (no. 313/323-400-002 13) The growing bioeconomy will require a greater supply of biomass in the future for both bioenergy and bio‐based products. Today, many bioenergy cropping systems (BCS) are suboptimal due to either social‐ecological threats or technical limitations. In addition, the competition for land between bioenergy‐crop cultivation, food‐crop cultivation, and biodiversity conservation is expected to increase as a result of both continuous world population growth and expected severe climate change effects. This study investigates how BCS can become more social‐ecologically sustainable in future. It brings together expert opinions from the fields of agronomy, economics, meteorology, and geography. Potential solutions to the following five main requirements for a more holistically sustainable supply of biomass are summarized: (i) bioenergy‐crop cultivation should provide a beneficial social‐ecological contribution, such as an increase in both biodiversity and landscape aesthetics, (ii) bioenergy crops should be cultivated on marginal agricultural land so as not to compete with food‐crop production, (iii) BCS need to be resilient in the face of projected severe climate change effects, (iv) BCS should foster rural development and support the vast number of small‐scale family farmers, managing about 80% of agricultural land and natural resources globally, and (v) bioenergy‐crop cultivation must be planned and implemented systematically, using holistic approaches. Further research activities and policy incentives should not only consider the economic potential of bioenergy‐crop cultivation, but also aspects of biodiversity, soil fertility, and climate change adaptation specific to site conditions and the given social context. This will help to adapt existing agricultural systems in a changing world and foster the development of a more social‐ecologically sustainable bioeconomy. publishersversion published

Uncertainty in predictions of long-term yields of perennial grasses makes business plans untenable in the short run. Long-term data across varied environments, including marginal lands, will help in preventing uncertainty while providing farmers and entrepreneurs with sound information to estimate reliable and affordable strategies on what, where, and how long to grow perennial grasses. In the present study, the long-term yields (11 to 22years) of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deuter), and giant reed (Arundo donax L.) grown in northern and southern Mediterranean environments are reported. Switchgrass was grown in Greece and northern Italy, giant reed in southern and northern Italy, and miscanthus in southern Italy. Furthermore, lowland and upland switchgrass ecotypes were compared in Greece. Despite similar biomass productions (9.8 and 10.0Mg DM ha−1 for uplands and lowlands, respectively), the upland ecotypes showed a significantly higher yield stability (CV of 24 and 32% for uplands and lowlands, respectively) over a 17-year period. Biomass yield varied considerably across years and locations; giant reed outperformed switchgrass under northern Italy environment (21.2 and 13.6Mg DM ha−1 for giant reed and switchgrass, respectively). Annual yield of switchgrass was 30% higher in the north than south Mediterranean; miscanthus showed intermediate production compared to giant reed and switchgrass (average of 22years) and a CV similar to switchgrass. In summary, these results evidence that multi-location, long-term trials are strongly needed to reduce uncertainties on crop yield variability and provide more accurate data from which optimized socio-economic and environmental predictions can be achieved.

The purpose of the work in WP 2 of the MAGIC project is to map, characterize and analyze projections for current and future marginal lands in Europe facing natural constraints and provide a spatially explicit classification that will serve as a basis for developing sustainable best-practice options for industrial crops in Europe. This report provides a description of the approach applied to map marginal lands based on the definition and focus described in D2.1 of MAGIC ‘Definition and classification of marginal lands suitable for industrial crops in Europe’. Different succeeding versions of a spatially explicit database (MAP-DB) of a Marginal Agro-Ecological Zonation (M-AEZ) of Europe will be generated. In this deliverable the methodological approach to mapping the first version of Marginal Agro-Ecological Zonation (M-AEZ) in MAGIC is presented.

In this paper the suitability of three perennial, herbaceous, lignocellulosic grasses ( Arundo donax , Saccharum spontaneous spp. aegyptiacum and Miscanthus x giganteus ) for the production of second-generation bioethanol in semi-arid Mediterranean environment was studied. Crops were established in spring 2002, supplying irrigation and nitrogen fertilization up to 2004/2005 growing season. Subsequently, crops were grown without any agronomic input and harvested annually. Data reported in this paper refers to 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 growing seasons. Aboveground dry matter (DM) yield was higher in Arundo (35.4±2.1 Mg ha –1 in 2009 and 32.2±1.9 Mg ha –1 in 2010 harvest) than in Saccharum (27.3±2.0 and 23.9±1.9 Mg ha –1 , respectively) and Miscanthus (19.6±2.8 and 17.2±1.6 Mg ha –1 , respectively). Structural polysaccharides of the raw material were higher in Miscanthus (63.4% w/w) followed by Saccharum (61.5% w/w) and Arundo (57.6% w/w). The same trend was identified for the cellulose content (41.0%, 36.8% and 34.6%, respectively). The highest values in the total hemicellulose complex were observed in Saccharum (24.7%), followed by Arundo (23.1%) and Miscanthus (22.4%). The composition of structural polysaccharides leads to a higher theoretical ethanol yield (TEY) from one dry ton of Miscanthus feedstock (kg DM Mg –1 ), followed by Saccharum and Arundo . On the other hand, the TEY per unit surface (Mg ha –1 ) was greater in Arundo than in Saccharum and Miscanthus . When compared to other lignocellulosic sources used in the second-generation bioethanol technology, such as agricultural residues, woody species and other herbaceous perennial crops, Arundo , Saccharum and Miscanthus showed a great potential in terms of TEY ha –1 . Given the high levels of biomass yield and composition of structural polysaccharides, the three species might be introduced into the Mediterranean cropping systems to supply lignocellulosic biomass for second-generation industrial plants or bio-refineries.

This chapter describes the physiology of kenaf from seed germination and root development till the effects of water and nutrients stress on grown plants. Review on kenaf agro-physiology of experiments carried out worldwide are presented and discussed mainly at the canopy and whole-plant level with the aim to help producers to make decisions and planning of production. However, few literature reports experimental results on the physiology of this multipurpose crop especially in terms of assimilation rate and its relation with environmental and agronomic factors. Knowledge on gas exchange rate and stomatal conductance may be a key support in understanding the physiology of Kenaf in terms of water requirements, its ability of light conversion into carbonaceous molecules influencing crop production potential and, indirectly, the carbon sequestration activity. In kenaf seedling development takes place when temperatures are higher than 10 °C, supporting the idea that kenaf is a macrothermal plant and optimal sowing has to be carried out during spring-summer, depending on the area of cultivation. Kenaf is very sensitive to reduced soil water availability, however, under moderate water stress conditions the crop maintains root development while reducing final biomass yield. Recent studies from Greece and Italy showed that even though kenaf uses CO2, solar radiation, water, and nitrogen less efficiently than C4 crops its assimilation rates can reach 50–58 kg of CO2 ha−1 h−1. However, great differences in terms of net photosynthesis have been reported by various authors, which may be related to the different environmental variables and agronomic managements during field and controlled experimental environments, such as air temperature, light intensity, water supply, nutrients availability, relative humidity, wind, cultivar, plant density, and soil type. Similar results were reported in the literature regarding stomatal conductance and transpiration rates. In experiments carried out during the night, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate determined water looses probably affecting the water requirement of the crop. Kenaf could be described as opportunistic in relation to water availability, with a high rate of stomatal conductance and transpiration when soil water is available but with markedly reduced leaf conductance and transpiration rate when water is limited. Extinction coefficient for light (K L ) and nitrogen (K N ), under water limited conditions, were found to be always smaller than under irrigated conditions, as a result of irregular adjustment of leaf orientation to incident radiation particularly during midday. Vertical Specific Leaf Nitrogen (SLN) distributions were found in canopies when leaf area index (LAI) was >1.5. It was observed a strong association between SLN and PAR distributions in irrigated kenaf canopies. Due to its tropical origin, kenaf behaves as a short-day plant remaining vegetative until daylength falls below 12.9 or 12.45 h. Flowering of late-maturity cultivars is under photoperiodic control; conversely, photoperiod does not influence the flowering of early maturity cultivars. Radiation use efficiency (RUE) in kenaf is positively associated with specific leaf nitrogen. RUE decreased under water deficit and nitrogen supply. Water use efficiency (WUE) decreased as the level of irrigation increased. It was higher than other C3 crops, but lower as compared to C4 crops tested in the same environments. Information on nutrient use efficiency (NUE) for kenaf is scarce and not well quantified to date. Higher NUE values were reported for micronutrients than for macronutrients. This last characteristic needs further investigation, since improvement of NUE is an essential and challenging prerequisite for the expansion of bioenergy crop productions into less fertile soils and marginal lands.

Bioenergy crops are expected to play an important role in reducing CO2 emission, in energy supply and in European energy policy. However, a sustainable bioenergy supply must be resilient to climate change and the impacts on agriculture at both global and regional scale. The purpose of this study was to forecast the potential distribution of several bioenergy crops based on agronomic and environmental constrains under current conditions and future scenarios (2020 and 2030) in European Union. Potential biomass yield, according to the category end use product achievable in each environmental zone of Europe at present and in the future available land have been also studied. Future yields were assessed according to two factors: technological development and climate change: the former was based on prospect of DG-Agriculture for conventional crops and expert judgments for bioenergy crops, while the latter based on relevant research papers and literature reviews which used site-specific crop growth models. Yields are expected to increase in northern Europe due to climate change and technological development, while in southerneastern Europe the negative effect of climate change will be mitigated by the technological development. The estimated total biomass production in Europe, on the basis of future yields and surplus land made available for energy crops, may not be sufficient to meet the needs of bioenergy supply as claimed in the European directive 2009/28/EC.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the production of ethanol by Scheffersomyces ( Pichia ) stipitis CBS6054, a native xylose fermenting yeast, from sugars contained in the giant reed ( Arundo donax L.) hemicellulosic hydrolysate. A response surface methodology with two input parameters, severity factor and oxalic acid concentration ranging from 2.87 to 4.05 and from 2 to 8 (% w oxalic acid/w solid dry matter), respectively, was employed to minimize degradation products and maximize sugar release. However, at the optimum condition for sugar release (43.8 g l −1 ), levels of toxic degradation products (acetic acid, furfural, HMF and phenolic compounds) were considered too high for yeast fermentation. The condition to minimize degradation products and maximize sugar yields was judged to be 2.87 severity factor and 5.0% oxalic acid concentration. At this condition 26.0 g l −1 xylose, 5.0 g l −1 glucose and 2.4 g l −1 arabinose were recovered in giant reed hydrolysate fraction. Adjustment of pH to 5.0 with Ca(OH) 2 decreased xylose, glucose and acetic acid, 22%, 8% and 27% respectively. Increasing the initial pH from 5.0 to 5.5, 6.0 and 6.5, respectively, significantly improved the fermentability of the giant reed hemicelluloses hydrolysate; no fermentation was observed at pH 5.0 after 96 h, while 8.20 g l −1 of ethanol was obtained at pH 6.0 after 48 h, with an ethanol yield of 0.33 ( g e / g s ) and a productivity of 0.17 g l −1 h −1 . The optimum pH of acid hydrolysate fermentation for ethanol production was 6.0–6.5.

The European Union (EU) has set quite an ambitious goal for biofuels contribution to the makeup of the renewable energy mix in the next decades. While substantial efforts have been made to develop the technologies for the transformation of biomass into biofuels, it is still uncertain to what extent the EU will be able to generate the biomass needed to meet its targets without compromising domestic food security. Using a bottom-up approach, this review addresses one of the key elements: the potential availability of land for non-food crops in the EU. The assess-ment is based on a land allocation model, which calculates surplus land that would be available for non-food crops after satisfying food and feed demands. Projections of future agriculture productivity and changes in population are the most important parameters of the modeling applied for two future scenarios established for the years 2020 and 2030. The total area potentially available for non-food crops in the EU-27 (excluding Cyprus and Malta) is estimated to be 13.2 million ha in the current situation, with fallow land the largest contributor. In scenarios 2020 and 2030, addi-tional land would be released from food and fodder crops, resulting in total land potential of 20.5 million ha in 2020 and 26.2 million ha in 2030. Results presented on a regional basis indicate potential locations for biomass transforma-tion plants in terms of feedstock production. A set of non-food crops can be recommended for the diverse climate and agronomic conditions of the entire EU area. © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, LtdKeywords: land assessment; land use; energy crops; non-food crops; bioenergy; biofuels