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Background The age at onset of the association between poverty and poor health is not understood. Our hypothesis was that individuals from highest household income (HI), compared to those with lowest HI, will have increased fetal size in the second and third trimester and birth. Methods. Second and third trimester fetal ultrasound measurements and birth measurements were obtained from eight cohorts. Results were analysed in cross-sectional two-stage individual patient data (IPD) analyses and also a longitudinal one-stage IPD analysis. Results The eight cohorts included 21 714 individuals. In the two-stage (cross-sectional) IPD analysis, individuals from the highest HI category compared with those from the lowest HI category had larger head size at birth (mean difference 0.22 z score (0.07, 0.36)), in the third trimester (0.25 (0.16, 0.33)) and second trimester (0.11 (0.02, 0.19)). Weight was higher at birth in the highest HI category. In the one-stage (longitudinal) IPD analysis which included data from six cohorts (n=11 062), head size was larger (mean difference 0.13 (0.03, 0.23)) for individuals in the highest HI compared with lowest category, and this difference became greater between the second trimester and birth. Similarly, in the one-stage IPD, weight was heavier in second highest HI category compared with the lowest (mean difference 0.10 (0.00, 0.20)) and the difference widened as pregnancy progressed. Length was not linked to HI category in the longitudinal model. Conclusions The association between HI, an index of poverty, and fetal size is already present in the second trimester.

During pregnancy, women are commonly exposed to several endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These compounds can transfer to the fetus through the placenta. Prenatal POP exposure is related to altered fetal genital and reproductive tract development. However, the relationship between exposure to POP mixtures and anogenital distance (AGD) is poorly investigated. This study investigated the association between prenatal exposure to POP mixtures and AGD in 8-year-old children.

Background Prenatal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may impair genital development and alter reproductive tract anatomy. Anogenital distance (AGD) is a useful biomarker of exposure to chemicals that act as endocrine disruptors. We evaluated associations between prenatal and perinatal exposure to several persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and AGD in 4-year-old children. Methods Data were drawn from the INMA-Asturias cohort. Pediatricians measured the anofourchetal distance in female children and anoscrotal distance in male children. The anogenital index (AGI) was defined as the AGD divided by the child's weight at age of examination. We measured the levels of two hexachlorocyclohexane isomers, hexachlorobenzene, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, six polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, and six polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners in maternal serum at 12 gestational weeks (n = 155) and in cord blood serum (n = 229). Anthropometric and parental sociodemographic variables were collected via face-to-face interviews. Linear regression models were used to evaluate the relationship between exposure to POPs and AGI, adjusted for confounders and stratified by sex. Results In male children, we found inverse associations between AGI and maternal concentrations of PCB-138 (ß = −0.041, 95% confidence interval [CI]: −0.074, −0.008, second tertile), PCB-153 (ß = −0.052, 95% CI: −0.085, −0.020, second tertile), PCB-180 ß = −0.065, 95% CI: −0.096, −0.035, second tertile; ß = −0.042, 95% CI: −0.073, −0.011, third tertile), PBDE-209 (ß = −0.031, 95% CI: −0.058, −0.006), cord serum concentrations of PCB-153 (ß = −0.029, 95% CI: −0.059, −0.000, second tertile; ß = −0.047, 95% CI: −0.085, −0.008, third tertile), and PCB-180 (ß = −0.041, 95% CI: −0.078, −0.005, third tertile). In female children, AGI was positively associated with maternal serum concentrations of PCB-101 (ß = 0.039, 95% CI: 0.002, 0.076, second tertile), and higher cord