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The Ecodesign Directive and the EU energy labelling have proven to be effective policy instruments to reduce energy consumption and thereby CO2 emissions. It is estimated that the Ecodesign Directive and the EU energy labelling have resulted in savings in 2020 of approximately 9% of the current energy consumption and 7% of the carbon emissions (European Commission 2019). In the new circular economy action plan from the European Commission, the Ecodesign Directive is assigned a key role in the transition towards a circular economy; indeed, it is a policy tool which can ensure circular design of products entering the European Market. However, studies have shown that around 10%–20% of the products on the European Market are non-compliant with the ecodesign requirements (Petersson and Nielsen 2013); consequently, 10% of the total energy savings are lost (Baton et al. 2017). It is therefore key to ensure that existing and future material efficiency requirements, in support of a circular economy, can be verified in relation to market surveillance. This has precisely been the theme of this project. This project has analysed existing and future material efficiency requirements under the Ecodesign Directive and the EU energy labelling and how these are verified. The point of departure for the analysis of the future material efficiency requirements is the work conducted under the standardisation mandate M/543 from the European Commission targeting material efficiency aspects under the Ecodesign Directive. The document review of the adopted implementing measures under the Ecodesign Directive, covering 28 energy-related product groups, showed that 22 implementing measures include information requirements targeting material efficiency, while only nine include specific requirements. The specific requirements cover aspects such as durability (or reliability using the definition from EN 45552), availability of firmware, easy disassembly, spare parts availability, access to repair and maintenance information for professional repairers, data deletion options, disassembly for recyclability and guidelines for marking plastic and hazardous substances. The standards developed under M/543 targeting material efficiency aspects are horizontal standards, which cannot be directly applied to energy-related products or product groups. The only exceptions are the standard on critical raw materials (EN 45558) and the standard on methods for providing information (EN 45559), which can be applied directly to products or product groups. The horizontal standards are intended to provide the framework for developing product or product group–specific standards. The horizontal standards focus on durability, remanufacture, repair, recyclability, reused components, recycled content and critical raw materials. The maturity level of the different methods in the horizontal standards varies, a factor that could also have an impact on the time horizon for their implementation. Only the standards on critical raw materials and providing information are considered directly applicable. The concepts are also at different levels of maturity. It is more likely that specific criteria will be set for the reliability than for the durability of products because more standards already exist regarding reliability. The analysis of the future material efficiency requirements revealed that there is a considerable overlap between the durability standard (EN 45552); the standard on remanufacturing (EN 45553); and the standard on repair, reuse and upgrade (EN 45554), as they cover overlapping and similar aspects. This is an obvious consequence of the fact that a product’s ability to be repaired or upgraded affects the product’s durability and its ability to be remanufactured. The study revealed two aspects not covered in detail by the standardisation mandate M/543, namely considerations regarding reduced resource or material consumption and chemicals and restrictions hereof. Both aspects are important in a transition to a circular economy.The existing experience with control measurements of the adopted material efficiency requirements are still limited in Denmark. Denmark and the other Nordic countries, in particular Sweden, are considered to be some of the countries dedicating the most resources to market surveillance in Europe. It is therefore likely that the existing experience with control measurements through product testing in the EU member states is still limited. An exception is Sweden, which is further elaborated in chapter 8. The limited experience entails that there might be undiscovered difficulties in the verification and test of these requirements, which will not be uncovered before more experience with control measurements have been gained. A recommendation is therefore to make use of a future European project such as Eco-design Compliance Projects (EEPLIANT) to gain more experience with market surveillance of the material efficiency requirements across the EU member states.Due to the horizontal nature of the standards, it is still difficult to evaluate how easy it will be to verify these types of aspects. The standards suggest different types of assessment methods and a few general remarks can be made on their verification.• For the durability standard 45552, it will be potentially more complex to verify future durability requirements (covering both repair and remanufacturing steps) compared with future reliability requirements, as the reliability concept is further developed in the standardisation context. • For the standard EN 45553 on remanufacturing, the assessment methods have not been well developed yet, as it primarily identifies important product attributes and criteria that are vital for remanufacturing processes. • For the EN 45554 standard on repair, reuse and upgrade only, one of the assessment methods is based on a calculation, while the remaining criteria are evaluated based on a classification of the different aspects according to a scale ranging from A to E. This classification of the different criteria can embed a qualitative interpretation if the requirements for the different classifications are not well defined. Further study is therefore needed to examine the verification of these types of requirements.• The EN 45556 standard on the proportion of reused component and the EN 45557 standard on recycled content can only be determined indirectly, as no methods exist to measure this directly. The verification is, therefore, by means of documented evidence from manufacturers and suppliers.• The EN 45558 standard on critical raw materials and the EN 45559 standard on information can to some extent can be used directly on specific products and verified through document review.To ensure verifiability of the future material efficiency requirements, it is essential that standards are developed and harmonised; they can then be used to check product compliance with the ecodesign requirements. Furthermore, accredited test laboratories should be available to perform the compliance check. The contracts with the accredited test laboratories should also have a dynamic structure to ensure that all ecodesign requirements can be tested at the same laboratory and to utilise synergies among the different policy areas.

De globale klimaudfordringer kræver, at vi alle tager et fælles ansvar, og at kommuner, uddannelsesinstitutioner, erhverv og borgere arbejder sammen på tværs for at opfylde de ambitiøse klimamål.I de kommende år vil der være fokus på en grøn omstilling af vores samfund, og her spiller især kommunerne og energi- og forsyningssektoren en afgørende rolle.I Aalborg Kommune har vi siden begyndelsen af 1990’-erne arbejdet med at nedbringe udledningen af drivhusgasser fra energiforsyningen og transport. Vi har gennem de seneste 10 år arbejdet målrettet med langsigtet og strategisk energi- og varmeplanlægning for at opnå Aalborg Kommunes overordnede mål om at være fossilfri senest i 2050.Vi har løbende arbejdet på at fremme den grønne omstilling, hvilket blev understreget af Aalborg Kommunes køb af Nordjyllandsværket og deraf følgende fokus på at få udfaset brugen af kul.De nye politiske målsætninger, den teknologiske udvikling på energiområdet og købet af Nordjyllandsværket har medført behov for at opdatere Aalborg Kommunes visioner og strategier på energiområdet.Formålet er at få et helhedsorienteret grundlag for de langsigtede beslutninger, der skal træffes i Aalborg Kommune, blandt andet for at opfylde lokale, nationale og internationale klima- og energimålsætninger.Derfor har Aalborg Kommune nu - sammen med Aalborg Universitet – udarbejdet Energivision for Aalborg Kommune 2050 - Smart Energy Aalborg. Energivisionen omfatter det samlede energiforbrug og tager udgangspunkt i, at vi vil være uafhængige af fossile brændsler og basere os på lokale vedvarende energikilder.Energivision 2050 viser, at et samlet energisystem med 100 pct. vedvarende energi senest i 2050 er muligt. Det kræver dog, at vi får skabt et sammenhængende integreret energisystem, hvor de forskellige teknologierarbejder sammen på tværs af forsyningsarter.

Kenya mainly depends on oil and hydro sources for electricity supply, however the rivers forhydropower and their tributaries are found in arid and semi-arid areas with erratic rainfallleading to frequent problems in stable delivery of electricity in the country. As for oil-basedelectricity generation, this is expensive and environmentally harmful. Kenya, however, has greatpotential for photo voltaics (PV)-based power generation since it is located near the equator andit receives plentiful insolation. PV technology is thus a viable option for electricity generation tomitigate the aforementioned electricity supply challenges, yet the exploitation of solar PV inKenya is still limited. This working paper analyses both the potential for integration of PV intothe Kenyan electricity generation mix and the sociotechnical, economic, political, andinstitutional and policy barriers, which limit PV integration. These barriers can be overcome withbetter and more robust policy regulations, additional investments in research and development,and coordination. Most noticeably, storage solutions and other elements of flexibility need tobe incorporated to balance the intermittent nature of electricity generation based on solar PV.

”Affald og Ressourcer på Tværs” (ART) er et projekt, der er finansieret af Region Hovedstaden og løber fra 2018-2021. Projektet faciliteres af Teknologirådet og DAKOFA.ART er et cirkulært samarbejdsprojekt mellem de tre store affaldsselskaber i hovedstadsregionen, ARC, Norfors og Vestforbrænding, København Kommune og Helsingør Kommune, samt organisationer fra hele værdikæden, repræsenteret ved Dansk Affaldsforening, Dansk Erhverv, Dansk Industri og Plastindustrien.Derudover deltager Erhvervshus Hovedstaden og Aalborg Universitet også som partnere i projektet.Projektets formål er at skabe og facilitere cirkulære samarbejder i regionen. Projektets delmål er blandt andet at udarbejde en affaldsanalyse i hovedstadsregionen, en kortlægning af de kommunale affaldsplaners indsatsområder samt en kortlægning af igangværende cirkulære projekter ihovedstadsregionen. Projektet skaber et nyt samarbejde mellem aktører på et sekundært ressourcemarked. Dette har ikke alene til formål at øge genanvendelsesprocenterne i tråd med kravene i de nyreviderede affaldsdirektiver samt regionens egne genanvendelsesmål, men også at facilitere dialog og vidensdeling ved brugen af cirkulære dialogværktøjer og analysemetoder. Hele projektet skal ses som et cirkulært samarbejdsprojekt, hvor nye aktører mødes, videndeler og skaber fælles overblik overressourcestrømmene, såvel affaldsstrømmene og de jomfruelige ressourcer, der i dag anvendes af regionens virksomheder. Endvidere vil der blive faciliteret en videndeling fra igangværende cirkulær økonomi (CØ) projekter.Der er brug for at etablere nye samarbejder, samle fælles viden, få nye mindsets, og roller for at fremme mulighederne for cirkulær økonomi, og for at sekundære ressourcer i højere grad finder anvendelse.Projektets arbejde for 2019 er opdelt i 3 spor:• Spor A: Ressourcestrømsanalyse/aktøranalyse for Region Hovedstaden• Spor B: Kortlægning af CØ-projekter i Region Hovedstaden• Spor C: Kortlægning af indsatser i de kommunale affaldsplaner i et CØ-perspektivDenne rapport vedrører spor C.

This study examines the development of industrial symbiosis through a practicalmodel for physical, organizational, and social interactions in six different cases from around the world. The results provide a framework that can be used by industrial symbiosis practitioners to facilitate the creation of synergy in industrial areas.

Recommendations for Nordic policymakers:Resource related ecodesign obligations will be a necessary part of the future policy mix, though not all parts of the policy puzzle is yet in place. The Nordic policymakers can begin processes in order to realise strategic opportunities. Examples of such policies would be to continue the development of resource efficiency criteria in the Nordic eco-labelling and public procurement in order to pave the way for an uptake in EU eco-labelling and in the Ecodesign Directive. By continuously developing resource related criteria in voluntary policy instruments a platform for legal standard setting will be created that can be applied for ecodesign. See also the main report Addressing resource efficiency through the Ecodesign Directive - A review of opportunities and barriers at http://www.norden.org/sv/publikationer/publikationer/2014-511

The geographic scope of the project "Integrated strategies and policy instruments for retrofitting buildings to reduce primary energy use and GHG emissions" (INSPIRE) is on four European countries: Denmark, Romania, Sweden and Switzerland. The building sector accounts for 40% to 50% of the final energy consumption in these countries. While in the European Union (EU) energy-related requirements for new buildings are constantly increasing (e.g. EPBD; nearly zero energy buildings up to 2020), the improvement of energy performance of the existing building stock constitutes a major challenge for the future, especially with relation to the greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals of 2050. The mastering of this challenge requires the identification of cost optimal retrofit strategies to achieve maximal reduction of energy consumption and carbon emissions through and within building renovation.

The European Union has initiated a number of initiatives to improve resource efficiency in Europe. The Ecodesign Directive is one of the policy instruments that could aid the transition towards a more resource efficient economy. So far, the Directive has mainly been applied to set requirements related to energy efficiency, but there is potential for setting legal standards that increase product durability and promote the future re-use and recycling of components and materials. This paper examines the potential benefits and disadvantages in applying the Directive for this purpose, and analyzes the potential to apply certain types of legal standards. There is a need for continuous development of indicators and methods in order to allow for a broader range of legal standards in the future. The study provides some short and long term recommendations on the way forward. The European Union has initiated a number of initiatives to improve resource efficiency in Europe. The Ecodesign Directive is one of the policy instruments that could aid the transition towards a more resource efficient economy. So far, the Directive has mainly been applied to set requirements related to energy efficiency, but there is potential for setting legal standards that increase product durability and promote the future re-use and recycling of components and materials. This paper examines the potential benefits and disadvantages in applying the Directive for this purpose, and analyzes the potential to apply certain types of legal standards. There is a need for continuous development of indicators and methods in order to allow for a broader range of legal standards in the future. The study provides some short and long term recommendations on the way forward.

This report constitutes part of the larger project Eco-design and Future Product Policy – Further research on Energyrelated Products. The objective was to investigate how nine policy instruments affect the development and environmental performance of household washing machines. The following policy instruments are investigated: 1. The Eco-design Directive2. The EU energy label Directive3. The WEEE Directive4. The RoHS Directive5. The REACH Regulation6. The EU Ecolabel Regulation7. The Nordic Swan8. Green Public Procurements (GPP)9. Voluntary Environmental Agreements (VA)

In this paper, the promotion of sustainable products through the sharing of best practices in product chains is examined. The general understanding is that the interactions in the supply chain are changing from a traditional focus on the supply of goods “just in time” towards a focus on value creation for the different stakeholders and closer collaboration and communication between manufacturers, suppliers, consumers, and retailers. Supply Chain Management can be divided into two main categories with rather different focus areas: ”risk minimization” related to environmental and social impacts upstream in the supply chain, and “business development” of sustainable products and product service systems. Sharing best practice in partnerships is an example of the latter, but Supply Chain Management goes beyond product chains and into partnerships where the focus is not on one main company but on the partnership between several stakeholders in the same or in interlinked value chains. The laundry chain is chosen as an example in which the partnerships may include several product chains; i.e., the supply chain of detergents and washing machines, and may involve, e.g., retailers to facilitate a development of and demand for sustainable products – in other words the creation of new markets.

Eco-innovation encompasses the “creative destruction” of unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. Research on eco-innovation promotion highlights the role of university in supporting industry and government partnerships to achieve sustainability. However, scant literature analyses the role of science parks in promoting eco-innovation. This study uses qualitative data gathered in two units of analysis: Panama Canal Authority and City of Knowledge Science Park. The study examines how Triple Helix interactions have built the regional system of eco-innovation at the Panama Canal. Overall, the research found that the Panamanian national innovation system facilitates eco-innovation by: providing research and development, building competence and financing of innovation processes. The “green maritime route” is an example of institutional eco-innovation promoted by the Panama Canal Authority with insights from consultants, universities and donnor agencies. The proximity of the science park to the canal, has hitherto not yielded with the creation of a “green cluster”, which could be a precedent to promote eco-innovations. These findings suggest that, Triple Helix interactions are not institutionalized but take place through adhoc projects. Further, science parks could become mediators in Triple Helix interactions between industry, universities and governments. Eco-innovation encompasses the “creative destruction” of unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. Research on eco-innovation promotion highlights the role of university in supporting industry and government partnerships to achieve sustainability. However, scant literature analyses the role of science parks in promoting eco-innovation. This study uses qualitative data gathered in two units of analysis: Panama Canal Authority and City of Knowledge Science Park. The study examines how Triple Helix interactions have built the regional system of eco-innovation at the Panama Canal. Overall, the research found that the Panamanian national innovation system facilitates eco-innovation by: providing research and development, building competence and financing of innovation processes. The “green maritime route” is an example of institutional eco-innovation promoted by the Panama Canal Authority with insights from consultants, universities and donnor agencies. The proximity of the science park to the canal, has hitherto not yielded with the creation of a “green cluster”, which could be a precedent to promote eco-innovations. These findings suggest that, Triple Helix interactions are not institutionalized but take place through adhoc projects. Further, science parks could become mediators in Triple Helix interactions between industry, universities and governments.

I denne Energivision for Aalborg Kommune har Energiplanlægningsgruppen på Aalborg Universitet undersøgt, hvordan CO2-udslippet kan reduceres, og hvordan kommunen kan overgå til 100% vedvarende energi i 2050. I perioden frem mod år 2050 skal en række initiativer mht. virkemidler og nye tekniske anlæg sættes i værk for at sikre, at målene for kommunen kan opnås. Energiforbruget i Aalborg Kommune frem mod år 2050 er kendetegnet ved massive el- og varmebesparelser og brændselsbesparelser i industrien set i forhold til udgangspunktet i år 2007. Varmeforbruget er reduceret med i gennemsnit 44%, bygninger i nærheden af fjernvarmenettet er omlagt til fjernvarme, bygninger i naturgasforsynede områder er omlagt til fjernvarme og endelig er hovedparten af de eksisterende fjernvarmenet i kommunen sammenkoblede med henblik på bedst muligt at udnytte geotermisk varme og varme fra et højeffektivt biomassefyret kraftvarmeværk. To fjernvarmenet i yderkanten af kommunen bibeholdes som separate net, men omlægges til varmepumper, hvorved der frigøres biomasse til andre formål og hvorved indreguleringen af vindmøllestrøm kan understøttes effektivt. Alle opvarmede bygninger udenfor fjernvarmeområder omlægges også til varmepumper. Dette gælder olie-, naturgas- og elopvarmede bygninger, samt huse opvarmede vha. biobrændsler, idet den begrænsede tilstedeværende biomasseressource øremærkes til transport, industri og kraftvarmeformål. Gennem bygningsisolering samt anvendelse af højisolerede fjernvarmerør sænkes fremløbstemperaturen i fjernvarmen til 65°C (årsgennemsnit), hvorved virkningsgraden i produktionsanlæggene kan forbedres. Af industriens brændselsforbrug er 8% omlagt til fjernvarme, og 33% af det resterende brændselsforbrug er reduceret gennem energibesparelser og resten omlagt til el- samt biomasse. Der er forudsat en svag stigning for transportbehovet frem mod 2050, som antages dækket af biobrændstof, brint, el og kollektiv transport. Specielt for elbiler gælder, at det specifikke energiforbrug er faldet med en faktor tre gennem mere effektive teknologier set i forhold til konventionelle biler baseret på forbrændingsmotorer. Der introduceres nye elforbrug til kollektive og individuelle varmepumper, til brændselssubstitution i industrien, til transport, til produktion af brint til transport samt til produktion af biogas. De samlede årlige omkostninger bliver i størrelsesordenen 16.000 kr pro persona, hvoraf hovedomkostningen ligger i investeringer. De 16.000 kr. er bestemt ud fra en befolkning på 200.000 indbyggere og omfatter alle de anførte omkostninger til energi herunder brændsel, investeringer samt drift og vedligeholdelse forbundet med privat, offentligt og erhvervsmæssigt el- og varmeforbrug. Omkostningerne ved at anvende de modellerede transportformer (f.eks. elbiler, biomassedrevne lastbiler, forbedret baneinfrastuktur og letbaner) frem for eksisterende teknologier er også omfattet heraf. For transportmidlerne er der altså tale om den ekstra omkostning ved at anvende energirigtige løsninger. At hovedparten af omkostningen flyttes fra brændsler, der vil skulle importeres, og til investeringer samt drift og vedligeholdelse betyder, at flere penge holdes i Danmark og i Aalborg i Kommune. Samlet set er der lavere omkostninger ved Energivisionen for 2050 og det samlede primærenergiforbrug reduceres med over 50%. I denne Energivision for Aalborg Kommune har Energiplanlægningsgruppen på Aalborg Universitet undersøgt, hvordan CO2-udslippet kan reduceres, og hvordan kommunen kan overgå til 100% vedvarende energi i 2050. I perioden frem mod år 2050 skal en række initiativer mht. virkemidler og nye tekniske anlæg sættes i værk for at sikre, at målene for kommunen kan opnås. Energiforbruget i Aalborg Kommune frem mod år 2050 er kendetegnet ved massive el- og varmebesparelser og brændselsbesparelser i industrien set i forhold til udgangspunktet i år 2007. Varmeforbruget er reduceret med i gennemsnit 44%, bygninger i nærheden af fjernvarmenettet er omlagt til fjernvarme, bygninger i naturgasforsynede områder er omlagt til fjernvarme og endelig er hovedparten af de eksisterende fjernvarmenet i kommunen sammenkoblede med henblik på bedst muligt at udnytte geotermisk varme og varme fra et højeffektivt biomassefyret kraftvarmeværk. To fjernvarmenet i yderkanten af kommunen bibeholdes som separate net, men omlægges til varmepumper, hvorved der frigøres biomasse til andre formål og hvorved indreguleringen af vindmøllestrøm kan understøttes effektivt. Alle opvarmede bygninger udenfor fjernvarmeområder omlægges også til varmepumper. Dette gælder olie-, naturgas- og elopvarmede bygninger, samt huse opvarmede vha. biobrændsler, idet den begrænsede tilstedeværende biomasseressource øremærkes til transport, industri og kraftvarmeformål. Gennem bygningsisolering samt anvendelse af højisolerede fjernvarmerør sænkes fremløbstemperaturen i fjernvarmen til 65°C (årsgennemsnit), hvorved virkningsgraden i produktionsanlæggene kan forbedres. Af industriens brændselsforbrug er 8% omlagt til fjernvarme, og 33% af det resterende brændselsforbrug er reduceret gennem energibesparelser og resten omlagt til el- samt biomasse. Der er forudsat en svag stigning for transportbehovet frem mod 2050, som antages dækket af biobrændstof, brint, el og kollektiv transport. Specielt for elbiler gælder, at det specifikke energiforbrug er faldet med en faktor tre gennem mere effektive teknologier set i forhold til konventionelle biler baseret på forbrændingsmotorer. Der introduceres nye elforbrug til kollektive og individuelle varmepumper, til brændselssubstitution i industrien, til transport, til produktion af brint til transport samt til produktion af biogas. De samlede årlige omkostninger bliver i størrelsesordenen 16.000 kr pro persona, hvoraf hovedomkostningen ligger i investeringer. De 16.000 kr. er bestemt ud fra en befolkning på 200.000 indbyggere og omfatter alle de anførte omkostninger til energi herunder brændsel, investeringer samt drift og vedligeholdelse forbundet med privat, offentligt og erhvervsmæssigt el- og varmeforbrug. Omkostningerne ved at anvende de modellerede transportformer (f.eks. elbiler, biomassedrevne lastbiler, forbedret baneinfrastuktur og letbaner) frem for eksisterende teknologier er også omfattet heraf. For transportmidlerne er der altså tale om den ekstra omkostning ved at anvende energirigtige løsninger. At hovedparten af omkostningen flyttes fra brændsler, der vil skulle importeres, og til investeringer samt drift og vedligeholdelse betyder, at flere penge holdes i Danmark og i Aalborg i Kommune. Samlet set er der lavere omkostninger ved Energivisionen for 2050 og det samlede primærenergiforbrug reduceres med over 50%.

The environmental impacts of mobile phones are related to the use of resources, process chemicals and en-ergy consumption in all production stages, energy use during the use phase and the considerable amount of potentially hazardous substances in the components. The mobile phone market is global and corresponds to a fragmented supply chain. The products tend to have a short lifetime and new features and increased data transmission are among some recent innovations. These innovation dynamics and the market trends are some basic characteristics that environmental policy has to consider, when making a mix of different policy instruments. This report analyses the challenges that policymaking deals with and evaluates how different policy tools can influence the future innovation of more environmental friendly mobile phones.

In connection with the establishment of the Product Oriented Environmental Initiative, the Environmental Protection Agency wished to undertake a subevaluation of the projects initiated under the cleaner technology action plan in relation to the sectors and areas which have been initially under focus in the Product Oriented Environmental Initiative. The purpose of this evaluation has been to assess experience from the initiatives to date against the intentions of the action plan, and to provide constructive input to help flesh out a future product-oriented initiative, including the activities linked to the new programme for cleaner products. The evaluation has focused on three selected sectors and on inter-sector product-oriented projects carried out under the Action Plan for Cleaner Technology 1993-97. The investigation has been carried out at the request of the Council for Recycling and Cleaner Technology. Experience with cleaner technologies has been evaluated in these three sectors: The textiles and clothing industry, The electronics industry, The transport industry, The projects evaluated completely cover the period 1993-97 in these three sectors.

This booklet descibes how enterprises can begin developing cleaner products based on a life-cycle perspective. It focuses on a simple approach to preventive environmental initiatives, where enterprises can begin at a level that matches their ambitions and their preconditions. The report is aimed at enterprises that, irregardless of size or sector, are interested in reducing environmental impacts from their products.

The paper gives a brief overview of different positions within innovation and network theory, and on that basis a framework is developed and discussed in relation to environmental innovations.The paper also highlights how enterprises within two different trades in the Danish food industry have made environmental innovations related to their processes and products.