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The science of reading refers to the extensive body of research on how we learn to read and the most effective methods for teaching reading. Our knowledge of what works in reading instruction is based on decades of rigorous, scientifically based research in the fields of education, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience. This research digest provides an overview of the science of reading, followed by a brief summary of research-based frameworks that explain the reading process, and concludes with a discussion of reading research in adult education.

This article conveys one practitioner's career-long journey related to teaching reading. The author gained valuable information from relevant research reports regarding the keys to effective reading instruction and has learned even more while implementing a systematic approach to teaching reading as a volunteer tutor.

Background: The teaching of reading or reading instruction has largely been carried out in terms of well-developed pedagogies in the field. These pedagogical approaches are, however, derived from research and development in a broad international context, and are often adopted by and implemented in various country settings. Given the contextual variation and resource disparities in South Africa, we feel such settings where approaches are adopted and used to represent a 'one size fits all' approach can be less than ideal. Aim: To explore scientific approaches to reading instruction as alternative approaches that are context specific. Setting: This article questions reading instruction as prescribed in the National Curriculum of South Africa. Methods: A conceptual review of literature was conducted to distil and propose alternatives to the dominant discourses for reading instruction. Results: Given the resource disparities and contextual variations, we argue for and propose a structured approach to reading instruction. Conclusion: Such an alternative should consider scientific evidence, and the teaching of reading needs to be explicit and systematic as well as contextually relevant. We believe it holds promise for improvement in literacy rates as it provides flexible and adaptable approaches. Contribution: We advocate for an alternative approach to reading instruction that is grounded in scientific evidence and emphasises explicit, systematic, and contextually relevant instruction.

While previous research has provided insights into vocabulary learning through extensive reading, the differential effects of word frequency and word class on active form and passive meaning word recognition remain less understood. By evaluating learners' post-test performance in active form recognition and passive meaning recognition, this study offers a comprehensive view of how these factors influence incidental vocabulary acquisition. The findings reveal a complex picture: while verbs showed a more significant improvement in active form recognition with increased exposure, underscoring the importance of repeated encounters, nouns were more effectively acquired in passive meaning recognition, suggesting differing cognitive processes involved in learning nouns versus verbs. Additionally, the study highlights that word frequency had a varied impact on learning outcomes, with multiple exposures facilitating a deeper understanding of verb forms, whereas noun learning showed less sensitivity to frequency. These results challenge the assumption that pleasure reading uniformly enhances all facets of word knowledge and suggest a complex interplay between word frequency, word class, and type of vocabulary recognition. The implications of these findings underscore the need for tailored strategies in L2 vocabulary instruction, advocating for a diversified approach to reading materials selection and emphasizing the importance of exposure diversity for effective vocabulary acquisition.

Reading is one of the main skills to be learned and used in schools and through the entire life of an individual. Its crucial importance made reading one of the central topics in different academic disciplines such as education, psychology, linguistic and neuroscience. Advances in multidisciplinary approaches to and studies of reading gave us the reason to talk about the science of reading. Improvement in research into reading during the last century reveals the fact that different approaches emphasized the importance of partially different aspects of reading skills. Different approaches presented sound arguments for different priorities in teaching and learning of reading. For some decades ago strong dichotomic arguments were so sharp that in the United States the reading literature talked about 'the reading wars'. During the recent decades, the debate of reading and approaches to reading, reading skills and reading processes have changed. Studies of reading presented different arguments for partially different priorities. The Reading Teacher (RT) has for many decades been the one of the most important arenas for the presentation of new findings, ideas, arguments, and trends. Our present corpus-based study captured the frequent collocations and their usage in the RT publications -- 952 articles comprising 3 548 008 words - during the last decade, 2012-2021. TreeTagger was used for part-of-speech tagging and CQPWeb/CWB framework was employed as the corpus interface in the analysis process. The findings clearly revealed that "reading comprehension" was the most frequently used collocation, and it has never weakened its position in the RT publications in the last decade. While instructional activities and processes like 'shared reading', 'during reading', 'while reading', and 'after reading' were given considerable attention, 'before reading' was almost forgotten. Findings also show that linguistic diversity among students, particularly in the US, also made an impact on the emerging of new topics and thus frequency of concepts like bilingual, multilingual, translanguaging, and coaching. Findings related to the ascending and descending trends reading collocations in RT publications regarding other aspects of reading, teaching of reading, and reading processes are discussed and some ideas for future research are presented.

The Ontario Human Rights Commission's (OHCR) "Right to Read Report" calls for school districts to implement early literacy interventions that have been scientifically proven to be effective for young children with reading difficulties. The acknowledgment of early intervention as an essential service for young children experiencing reading difficulties is a strong and welcome message in the report. However, the report recommends a narrow course for reading interventions in Ontario, drawing on discourse from the Science of Reading community, which questionably frames current interventions, such as Reading Recovery, as unscientific, ineffective commercial programs. In this response, the authors contest the one-sidedness of these recommendations based on a paradox in the report between what constitutes an effective early literacy intervention supported by science and the standards for effectiveness the OHRC requires of interventions it endorses versus those it discredits. Rather than dismissing one approach or the other outright, a call is made for school leadership to consider broader reading science and the strengths of various approaches instead of narrowing the menu of effective literacy interventions that may support diverse learners.

This paper examines how kaiako (teachers) view professional learning and development training (PLD) in structured literacy (SL) in a Maori-medium immersion context. Through interviews with kaiako in a kura kaupapa Maori (Maori-medium educational setting) who teach students in Years 1-6, and images of the literacy environment to capture some of the literacy practices in classrooms, participants share their perspectives on their PLD training. The findings revealed some of the difficulties kaiako face, such as limited resources and working within a standardisded curriculum, whilst attempting to implement changes based on their PLD training. The findings highlight the need for support from all stakeholders (including policy makers and the school leadership team) to successfully implement SL in Maori-medium settings. The need for further resources in Maori-medium settings and the challenge of making changes to a standardised curriculum also emerged from the study. Finally, the findings indicate some of the potential benefits of PLD in SL for Maori-medium educators and akonga (students), such as an understanding of how the brain learns to read, some of the key elements of reading success, and instructional principles for effective literacy instruction.

This feature offers an archive of articles published in other venues during the past year and serves as a valuable tool to readers of "Reading in a Foreign Language" ("RFL"). It treats any topic within the scope of "RFL" and second language reading. The articles are listed in alphabetical order, each with a complete reference as well as a brief summary. The editors of this feature attempt to include all related articles that appear in other venues. However, undoubtedly, this list is not exhaustive.

This paper contributes to a research program within extensive reading (ER) and "Reading in a Foreign Language" using corpora to simulate ER input to develop vocabulary through incidental learning to 9,000 words. This helps researchers/teachers evaluate ER. If corpora indicate no 'pathway' from smaller to larger vocabulary sizes through authentic ER input, with vocabulary recurrence rates sufficient for incidental learning, then graded readers or other pedagogy appear essential. Studies offer different conclusions due to modeling issues. This study replicates previous research on a larger corpus of general fiction, with improved modeling. For every vocabulary size, a substantial amount of comprehensible fiction is found, with enough repetition of vocabulary from subsequent levels that pathways from smaller to larger vocabulary sizes are possible without graded readers. Prior estimates of approximately 3 years to acquire 9,000 words at 1 hour a day are underestimates, with modeling indicating 2 hours a day would be required.

In second language (L2) reading strategy research, two concerns need addressing: (1) the discrepancy in assessing strategy use between written surveys and verbal reports, and (2) the effect of using strategies on readers' comprehension outcomes when different types of comprehension tasks are utilized. The present study addressed these concerns by asking five more-proficient and five less-proficient Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) university learners to read two domain-specific texts while assessing their strategy use. The results from both quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed a "gap" between the survey and verbal reports for assessing L2 reading strategy use. Additionally, the contribution of strategies to the readers' comprehension was found to vary by comprehension task type. Similarly, the variety of strategy use had a strong association with the readers' performance on only one of three types of comprehension tasks, free recall. The findings hold important implications on L2 reading strategy instruction.

This bibliometric study analyzed the research topic structure of the "Reading in a Foreign Language" ("RFL") journal in the past two decades. Using two well recognized bibliometric approaches, namely, the keyword co-occurrence analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis, the study examined author keywords and their co-occurrence of 184 research articles from 2002 to 2020. Results revealed that (1) the journal covered a wide range of reading research topics, and its most frequently researched topics were extensive reading, reading fluency, vocabulary learning, reading of foreign languages other than English, etc; (2) frequently researched topics were clustered into eight groups, including development of reading fluency, learner factors, vocabulary, etc.; and (3) the network of research topics centered around six large nodes (i.e., standardized keywords), namely extensive reading, reading fluency, vocabulary learning, reader characteristics, reading instructions, and reading comprehension. The findings might help readers and potential contributors familiarize with the research topic structure of the "RFL" journal. This study has important pedagogical implications.

This paper attempts to provide a new understanding of the gutter and how it is used to significant effect in Gene Luen Yang's, Boxers & Saints. This research draws upon the work of Scott McCloud to establish a framework for the theoretical applications of the gutter. Most prior research focuses on the gutter within the page. This article demonstrates how Yang pushes the concept of the gutter further by creating a new type of gutter that moves beyond the pages and across texts. Then the research attempts to demonstrate how the idea of the textual gutter heightens the transnational elements that define Boxers & Saints.

Using reading research as an example, this article aims to provide new conceptual tools for examining the production of scientific knowledge. Drawing on the metaphor of a theatre of truth, it explores how scientific knowledge is staged, dramatised and communicated within the field of reading research. It highlights the performative and public nature of knowledge production and examines the role of human and non-human actors, such as researchers, audiences, methods and visualisations, in shaping what counts as scientific truth. Focusing on the articles published in the Journal of Reading Behavior (later Journal of Literacy Research), the study traces how shifts in paradigms -- such as the transition from qualitative to qualitative and interpretative approaches -- reconfigure the 'stage' of reading science. The article also introduces the concept of a contract of intelligibility to explore how shared assumptions and conventions govern the production and reception of scientific knowledge. We also consider the techniques of dramatisation that are used to differentiate concepts and demonstrate scientific truth in an accessible and persuasive way. Ultimately, the article underlines the need to critically examine the mechanisms through which educational research constructs and communicates its truths, thereby revealing its broader societal and political implications.

Purpose: In the Fall of 2019, Marietta College and Marietta City Schools, in Marietta, Ohio, piloted a program to improve literacy knowledge and pedagogy through completing LETRS training, a two-year literacy professional development based on the science of reading, as peers. Design/methodology/approach: This project was aligned to effective professional development research that states better trainings are content-specific, allow support and collaboration and are ongoing throughout the school year (Blank and de las Alas, 2009; Darling-Hammond, Hyler, and Gardener, 2017) and respect participants work/life schedules (Bigsby and Firestone, 2017). Findings: Some benefits of this collaboration were that teachers, college faculty and teacher candidates were able to communicate more effectively about literacy because we all had shared background knowledge and spoke the same language when it came to literacy. We were also able to make more meaningful clinical experiences for our teacher candidates because we created a stronger connection between the knowledge and pedagogy taught in students' literacy courses and the practices they saw in real classrooms. Inservice teachers saw the college faculty and teacher candidates as strong partners, which greatly strengthened our clinical preparation. Practical implications: The paper includes implications for the development of stronger partnerships between teacher preparation program faculty and school partnership faculty and more authentic and meaningful clinical experiences for teacher candidates. Originality/value: This project shows how meaningful partnerships and clinical experiences can be created when partnership faculty are seen as peers.

A growing, research-based consensus supports addressing our nation's literacy crisis through instruction aligned with the Science of Reading (SoR). We recognize, however, that the complexity of SoR content, alongside the multiplicity of instructional decisions and practices, and the unique features of each classroom and school, make simple implementation designs unlikely to achieve desired results. To guide schools in developing higher levels of SoR-aligned early literacy instruction, we developed the Dynamic Early Literacy Framework (DELF). The DELF primarily serves as a framework to guide inquiry and innovation of SoR-aligned early literacy drivers, while documenting progress as well as identifying change priorities. The framework addresses growth across four defined stages for each of the seven drivers: School Leadership & Culture; Comprehensive Early Literacy Assessment System; Evidenced-Based Core and Intervention Curriculum; Evidenced-Based Instructional Practices; Supervision & Evaluation; Coaching and Professional Development; and Family and Community Engagement. This article reports findings from a one year qualitative pilot investigation of the DELF in three school sites and the K-2 central instructional support team in kindergarten through second grades. Findings suggest the use of the tool had a positive impact in framing inquiry of the current literacy model and development of action plans across various stakeholders. Discussion includes lessons learned and implications for future research.

Throughout the 20th century, a limited number of scholarly oriented books and monographs were issued that should have had great influence on later theory, research, and praxis associated with the college reading and study strategies field. Yet, these works have been, at least to some extent, lost to the winds of time. The lessons that can be learned from each text are important as we move through the reform era of the first three decades of the 21st century. This manuscript is intended to provide a review of selected foundational works of the 20th century of which early-career and established scholars in the field of college reading and learning strategies should have a working knowledge.

Textbooks have been the primary teaching tool since the 19th century. By their nature, they contained a comprehensive compilation of the content of a particular subject with the intention of explaining it; this knowledge, in turn, was usually filtered to conform to a particular society's expectations of elementary knowledge about the natural and social environments. There has been a great deal of research on how the content of textbooks has changed in line with changing values in different societies and over different periods. However, little research has been done on how textbook reading substrates and design have changed and how these changes have affected learning and comprehension: studies that systematically examined the effects of different reading substrates and different layouts on reading and learning comprehension did not appear until the late 20th century and early 21st century. We examine such studies and PISA 2021 results to draw five conclusions for future textbook research. These conclusions indicate that screens are worse than printed texts for some types of reading, while interactivity and dynamic design are not values per se but require coherent design to improve reading performance and higher-level thinking skills.

This study aimed to examine the studies investigating the relationship between affective factors and reading success through systematic review. The studies were reviewed based on the study type, study design, sample size, sample type, data collection tool, data analysis method, and study purpose. More than 80% of the studies related to reading motivation, reading attitude, and reading self-efficacy; 85% had a quantitative study design, and the number of studies conducted with large groups for examining reading self-efficacy was limited. However, there were studies with different sample groups aiming to assess reading motivation and reading attitude. The number of studies with a sample consisting of high school students among the three variables was also limited; in more than 80% of the studies, Scales, tests, and questionnaires were used as the data collection tool, while correlation and t-tests were used in 50% as the data analysis method. When the studies were examined by their objectives 60% of the studies aimed to determine the relationship between the variables and the impact of various applications on the variables. The relationship between motivation, attitudes, self-efficacy, and reading success was examined through a meta-analysis.

This paper's objective is to give a thorough summary of research on the reading behavior of Chinese primary and secondary school students. The majority of existing research in this field focuses on the importance of extensive reading, the status quo of reading practices among Chinese students, factors that influence student reading behavior, and techniques for enhancing student reading accomplishment. It is proposed that this review will generate more interest in the development of basic education students' reading skills.

Digitalization has led to significant changes in reading like it does in almost every field. When traditional print reading is considered together with digital reading, it can be argued that digital reading differs from printed reading in many respects. Given the complex nature of reading, it is predictable that an in-depth examination of digital reading is needed. In this context, this research aims to determine the trends and prominent concepts/topics by examining the studies on digital reading in a systematic and holistic manner. In the research, peer reviewed articles related to the concept of digital reading indexed in the Web of Science database were analyzed. Data analysis methods such as content analysis, descriptive analysis and bibliometric analysis were used in the research. As a result of the research, it was seen that there was a significant increase in digital reading studies especially in recent years. It is also determined that digital reading studies are concentrated in developed countries. The data on the participants were also examined in the studies. Accordingly, it was identified that the highest number of studies took place at the K-12 level, and the participants generally had a lower-tomedium socioeconomic status. The sampled papers were also analyzed in terms of reading methods and it was seen that digital shared reading was used more than other reading methods. When the most commonly used variables, the most used concepts in the abstract sections or the most used keywords are examined, it is noticeable that the concept of reading comprehension comes to the fore. When the authors/references that received the most references in the field were analyzed, it was determined that OECD reports were referenced the most. In line with the findings obtained, results were discussed mutually with the literature and various inferences were made.

Synthesizing academic literature into new knowledge through writing is a core skill that doctoral students engaged in research must learn. However, developing efficacy in synthesis skills as an academic writer is a culturally and cognitively demanding process that occurs over many years, requires abstraction, and draws upon critical reading skills. Doctoral reading is an invisible part of training, despite large reading loads in doctoral coursework. Further, reading, writing, and researching skills are co-constructed at the doctoral level as previously described by Kwan (2008). The purpose of this essay is to describe how the primary author used her experience as an EdD student, science teacher, and writer to develop a method that addresses doctoral reading challenges. The novel method described here combines categorical reading strategies with social collaborative annotation (SCA). This method centers on active, categorial reading to deconstruct arguments in the primary literature by identifying claim, evidence, reasoning, implications, and context (CERIC), which can serve as a critical reading pedagogy in existing courses, reading clubs, and seminars. Combining CERIC with SCA tools--ranging from homemade variations of Google Suite to purposeful annotation software, such as Hypothes.is.--can support an efficient doctoral reading process. This essay illustrates several worked examples and explores how this process supports retrieval, engagement, collaboration, inclusion, and community, particularly in online learning environments. Significant implications of this work are to make hidden reading expectations explicit and transform professor-centered transmission models of learning to student-centered sociocultural models of learning. The essay proposes next steps for testing the approach's effectiveness in online doctoral learning.

This report reflects a panel presentation and discussion at the 2020 Literacy Research Conference focused on the science of reading (SoR). Each panelist presents a summary of the presentation and incorporates the comments of the Literacy Research Association (LRA) members attending the session virtually and posting in the chat room. Each presentation takes a critical stance on the possibilities for expanding the lens for the SoR. Concerns are raised regarding the narrow interpretation of the SoR and impact of this narrow conception on research, theory, and practice.

In the late 1980s Batia Laufer worked with teachers who believed that to understand a text it was enough to understand 80% of the text's word tokens. In response, Laufer set out to calculate the minimal text coverage, i.e., percentage of running words in a text the reader should understand to comprehend it reasonably well. In 1992, she explored the second facet of lexical threshold, the number of words learners should know receptively to reach reasonable comprehension. Two decades later, Laufer examined the relationship between text coverage, vocabulary size of the learners, and reading comprehension, by combining the three variables into one design. Based on the combined evidence, the current suggestion is that an optimal coverage for reading of any text is 98% of word tokens and that the minimal coverage is 95%. Recently (Laufer, 2020), Laufer found that 95% coverage could be reached with an initial knowledge of 90% words in the text and inferring an additional 5%. The findings regarding the lexical thresholds, in terms of coverages and learners' vocabulary size, can be used in planning lexical syllabi, grading reading texts in terms of lexical difficulty, matching particular texts to particular learners, dividing learners by lexical knowledge, and researching comprehension, inferencing and incidental acquisition. Based on her findings, Laufer presents her arguments (specifically responding to Stuart McLean's 2021 article) in three sections: (1) Coverages, thresholds, and comprehension: Incorrect assumptions? (2) Matching texts to learners' level: A need for rigid mastery levels? and (3) The lexical load of texts and the lexical knowledge of learners: An inappropriate word counting unit? She concludes that it is rewarding to see that issues pertaining to lexical difficulty of texts, and learners' lexical knowledge necessary to comprehend them continue generating interest and discussion three decades after she started working on them. Scholarly activity involves revisiting and refining existing concepts and tools and applying different approaches to the same issue. However, older, and newer approaches do not have to be either right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, valid or invalid. They are complementary, not mutually exclusive. [For McLean's article, "The Coverage Comprehension Model, Its Importance to Pedagogy and Research, and Threats to the Validity with Which It Is Operationalized," see EJ1296462.]

Studies of lexical coverage are valuable because they reveal the importance of vocabulary knowledge to comprehension. Lexical profiling research is also extremely useful because it indicates the vocabulary knowledge necessary to understand different text types such as novels, newspapers, academic lectures, television programs, and movies. Moreover, lexical profiling research provides teachers and learners with concrete vocabulary learning targets that students can seek to achieve and evaluate their knowledge against. However, there are only three studies that have precisely investigated the effects of lexical coverage on reading comprehension (Hu & Nation, 2000; Laufer, 1989; Schmitt et al., 2011), two that have directly investigated its effects on listening comprehension (Bonk, 2000; Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013), and one that has done this for viewing comprehension (Durbahn et al., 2020). With few studies and few variables that may affect comprehension examined, discussions of the generalizability of lexical coverage findings are likely overstated. The aim of this article is to clarify earlier research findings and highlight areas where further research is needed.

In many U.S. states, legislation seeks to define effective instruction for beginning readers, creating an urgent need to turn to scholars who are knowledgeable about ongoing reading research. This mixed-methods study considers the extent to which recognized literacy experts agreed with recommendations about instruction that were included on a state's reading initiative website. Our purpose was to guide implementation and inform policy-makers. In alignment with the initiative, experts agreed reading aloud, comprehension, vocabulary, fluency, phonological awareness, and phonics all deserve a place in early literacy instruction. Additionally, they agreed some components not included on the website warranted attention, such as motivation, oral language, reading volume, writing, and needs-based instruction. Further, experts cautioned against extremes in describing aspects of early reading instruction. Findings suggest that experts' knowledge of the vast body of ongoing research about reading can be a helpful guide to policy formation and implementation.

When learners can comprehend 98% or more of the tokens within a text, the lexical difficulty of the text is unlikely to inhibit reading comprehension (Schmitt et al., 2011). This phenomenon will be referred to as the Coverage Comprehension Model (CCM). The CCM is present in countless articles that describe the percentage of tokens necessary to comprehend reading materials (e.g., Nation, 2006). Further, numerous studies operationalize the CCM to provide evidence that participants were able to comprehend reading materials (e.g., Feng & Webb, 2020) by estimating: (1) the lexical difficulty of a text; and (2) the lexical mastery level of a learner. However, the validity with which the CCM is operationalized is limited by the following four assumptions: (1) 26 out of 30 words on a levels test is an appropriate threshold for mastery of a 1,000-word band; (2) the word counting unit used when estimating the lexical difficulty of a text and the lexical ability of a learner is appropriate for the target learners; (3) the item format used in levels tests can appropriately capture the type of vocabulary knowledge necessary when reading; and (4) the number of items on a vocabulary levels test accurately represents the difficulty of the 1,000-word band. This paper applies the findings of research to evaluate the validity of the first two assumptions, and concludes that the validity with which the CCM is operationalized in research is limited.

This essay describes my personal experience as a doctoral candidate collecting data for my dissertation during the COVID-19 pandemic. After providing the context for my own study, I lay out three main ideas that emerged while collecting data. These main ideas involve including participants in the decision-making process, sharing one another's challenging contexts to understand and connect, and the importance of teacher learning communities in times of isolation. My essay highlights some of the challenges and opportunities of collecting data during difficult circumstances and discusses the importance of professional learning communities to assist teachers with long-term coping within an unexpected context.

Since 2018, there has been an increase in the use of the term "Science of Reading" (SoR), which is a method of teaching reading that is connected to an understanding of reading and reading development that aligns with scientific research (Shanahan, 2020). Teachers who are new to the classroom may be unfamiliar with SoR and teaching practices that align with this pedagogy. Institutions of higher education, specifically graduate literacy programs, are in a position to support and mentor new teachers with the current shift in literacy instruction. This article addresses changes that can be made to graduate course content in order to support new teachers, particularly during this shift to a new method of literacy instruction. This article offers ideas for how higher education can play a role in better preparing new teachers for SoR instruction.

The Reading League builds the understanding of evidence-aligned reading instruction and its application with a variety of supports for educators as they build their knowledge and professional networks around the science of reading. It builds the understanding of evidence-aligned reading instruction and its application with a variety of supports for educators as they build their knowledge and professional networks around the science of reading. The purpose of this nonprofit organization is to increase the awareness, understanding, and use of evidence-aligned reading instruction. The Reading League's branches are wide-reaching and fruitful because educators are committed to the lifelong learning necessary to ensure that their students achieve their potential and reap all the benefits of a literate life. The branches have served to create a vast network of members and allies who understand that when two-thirds of a nation's students are not reading proficiently, providing the best instruction for "all" of them is a matter of social justice.

This article discusses the current contradictory policies surrounding the push for phonics instruction in Texas schools. Focusing on this current iteration of the reading wars, this article seeks to help teachers develop a historical context for reading instruction, review existing research on learning to read, and turn that knowledge into practical strategies for advocating for a comprehensive approach to literacy.

Reading is an integral part of chemistry education. The language of chemistry plays a major role when reading chemistry texts and textbooks. Reading textual and non-textual explanations impact students' understanding of chemistry texts and textbooks. In our review we outline the importance of reading texts and textbooks in chemistry education. We offer different points of view to look at textbook research (conceptual, socio-historical, textual, non-textual) and reading research (readability and comprehensibility) and focus on reading research on textual and non-textual explanations. We point out two major shifts in research interests on texts, textbooks and reading: from readability to comprehensibility and from textual to non-textual explanations. We consider research from the 1950s until today and analyse literature concerning elementary, secondary and tertiary science and chemistry education. Finally, we review ideas for encouraging reading and conclude by presenting recommendations for chemistry education researchers and chemistry teachers on how to improve reading in chemistry education.

One avenue for developing second language (L2) vocabulary knowledge is through Extensive Reading (ER). ER can provide opportunities for incidental learning to occur. Class time is often too restricted for sufficient attention to deliberate learning (Hunt & Beglar, 2005) meaning ER is important for L2 vocabulary development. This article builds on ideas in the recent two-part "Reading in a Foreign Language" ER discussion forum by investigating two implementations of ER and their effects on L2 vocabulary development: a traditional ER-only approach, and an ER-plus approach which supplements ER with post-reading discussion implemented in small groups. L2 English learners enrolled at a university in Aotearoa New Zealand read five graded readers during normal class time. Latent Semantic Analysis was used to measure the development of word association knowledge of 60 target words. The findings revealed facilitative effects of both ER approaches. Supplementing ER with discussion provided opportunities for further development.

This article discusses the interchangeability of three self-report measures for reading anxiety. Despite their differences in target constructs, the three scales have been used for similar lines of research. After computing shared variance between the target scales and examining the behavior of anxiety indexes in relation to the amount of graded reading and reading comprehension performance, the author reaches the conclusion that each of the three scales should be treated as a unique research tool (i.e., the scales are non-interchangeable with one another). The overall results also suggest the utility of each reading anxiety scale in educational research and practice.

The Grade 2 learner results of the Early Grade Reading Study (EGRS) randomised control trial (RCT) in the North West province showed that the structured pedagogic intervention model that included instructional coaching, lesson plans, and quality learning materials was more cost-effective than a similar intervention model that excluded coaching. These results are read against the growing body of literature that questions the value of RCTs in identifying mechanisms of change. For this reason, two small-scale qualitative case studies were undertaken to identify the difficulty in detecting workings of classroom practice that RCTs cannot show. Three mechanisms of change: the organisation of space, time, and implementation of routines drawn from the work of Foucault, were analysed to interpret observed changes to teacher practice and some of the weaknesses in the EGRS programme.

Some words in English are derived words, i.e., words with an affix that changes their part of speech, like know "(v)" [right arrow] "knowable (adj)," or meaning, like "pleasant (adj)" [right arrow] "unpleasant (adj)." As a reading teacher, Tom Cobb had always believed that derived words were not particularly problematic for his English as a second language (ESL) and foreign language (EFL) learners, owing to the recurrence of a relatively small number of different derivational affixes in what they were reading. Their problem seemed rather not knowing enough words in any form. The opposing belief, held by researchers like McLean (2017), is that the roughly 120 derivational affixes of English are inscrutable to their learners, even if they know the base words they are attached to, and thus present a significant obstacle to reading comprehension. Such a disparity of beliefs, held by people with similar experience of learners, texts, and affixes and a professional interest in the matter, shows the need for an objective way of counting affixes such as text analysis computer software might contribute to. Laufer and Cobb (2020) conducted an empirical investigation into this question, for which I developed Morpholex v.3.1, a computer program that assesses the morphological load of an entered text. The output has two main parts, the proportion of base, inflected, and derived words in a text, and the cumulative token coverage each provides. Morpholex v.3.2 was recently reviewed in "Reading in a Foreign Language" by McLean and Stoeckel (2021) as part of a response to Laufer (2021) in the same volume. The review raised some useful points, chief among them that Morpholex underestimates the number of derivational morphemes in a given text by counting only once words that in fact bear two affixes, whether an inflectional and a derivational (like "teachers" [right arrow "teach" + "er" + "s," counted only as an inflection while it is also a derivation) or two derivational (like "remorselessly" [right arrow] "remorse" + "less" + "ly," counted only as one derivation rather than two). The criticism is legitimate; it was based on Laufer and Cobb's decision to put program development on hold while the paper was in review and in press. It is now more than a year since publication, during which a follow-up piece has been produced (Cobb & Laufer, 2021), Morpholex has collected megabytes of user data, and program development has resumed--partly thanks to nudges from McLean and Stoeckel and other critics. [For McLean and Stoeckel's 2021 article, "Lexical Mastery Thresholds and Lexical Units: A Reply to Laufer," see EJ1316857. For Laufer's 2021 article, "Lexical Thresholds and Alleged Threats to Validity: A Storm in a Teacup?," see EJ1317203.]