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Copyright of Historia Contemporanea is the property of Historia Contemporania and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Historia Contemporanea is the property of Historia Contemporania and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The paper is a case study on popular Czech biographical novel Největší z Pierotů by František Kožík published in 1939. After a concise context overview and a brief characterization of the novel, the study focuses on how the novel was received by the critics and what promotional strategy its publisher adopted, showing what was and what was not considered literary value in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study deals with the problems of the Protectorate psychological prose, its form and changes in the period 1939-1945. It first characterizes general tendencies and backgrounds, then discusses individual authors. It describes the top works of the period, i.e. the novels of Václav Řezáč and Jan Drda. It then describes a group of works that focus on exceptional characters, artists and doctors. Among the best known are Karel Schulz's The Stone and the Pain, and among the lesser known are the works of K. J. Beneš, Čestmír Jeřábek, Helena Dvořáková and others. Another section is devoted to specific works by younger authors such as Bohuslav Březovský, Vladimír Pazourek or Miroslav Hanuš. They are united by the figure of a young man suffering for love, loneliness and the search for the meaning of life. A large part of the Protectorate's prose consisted of works dealing with interpersonal relationships, especially marital and lover's relationships (Václav Řezáč, Jarmila Glazarová, František Kožík, Olga Barényiová). Interpersonal relationships on the background of small-town life were the subject of several novels by Jaroslav Havlíček, and the work of Vladimír Neff also stands out from contemporary production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based upon an extensive revision of archival sources as well as of the Annual Reports (Memorias) of Chile’s Indian Protectorate (Protectorado de Indígenas), this paper proposes to study the mediators and socio-linguistic mediation practices employed by the institutions responsible for the settlement and relocation of the Mapuche people after their defeat under Chilean occupation forces (1894-1930). These institutions were the Protectorado –agency in charge of the legal defense of the Mapuche– and the Comisión de Radicación –which established the land to which a Mapuche family group could be entitled and drafted the entitlement (Título de Merced). The Protectorado had offices in five provinces south of the Biobío river (Arauco, Malleco, Cautín, Valdivia and Llanquihue), with a staff composed of interpreters, secretaries, engineers, assistants and the protectors themselves, usually lawyers. The Protectorado and the Comisión became the government’s judiciary agencies applying the Indian settlement laws and procedures to force the Mapuche population to live in a system akin to reservations (comunidades). They were thus the agencies closest to the indigenous needs and demands during this period. Three characters were key to socio-linguistic mediation required by these agencies: the formal interpreters, officially called “portero-intérprete” as they acted also as janitors, the informal “tinterillos” (pettifoggers) of Mapuche origin, and the “lenguaraces”, mediators of mixed origin, a version of the old frontier military interpreters. All of them had a role in the bureaucratic and judiciary processes administered by the State’s tutelary regime of occupation. We intend to show that the study of these institutions can shed some light into the practices of linguistic contact, translation, communication and mediation, bilingualism and the eventual imposition of Spanish as the dominant language during the difficult period in which the Mapuche society strove to preserve the rights to their lands confronting the Chilean and foreign colonization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Historia Agraria is the property of Historia Agraria and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

From the 1950s onwards, at the height of the process of Afro-Asian decolonization, Portugal underwent various international pressures due to its colonial policy. Historically marked by its economic weakness, the country had implemented a dependent colonialist model based on the opening of its overseas domains to the international capital. In addition, the strategic interests of the United States and NATO within the context of the Cold War resulted in a deflation of the pressures against Portuguese colonialism by the great powers. Hence, despite the isolationist policy implemented by the Salazar regime and the condemnation of colonialism by international public opinion, the economic and financial interests of the great powers, as well the political and strategic constraints of the international conjuncture, granted the survival to the Portuguese Colonial Empire until the mid-1970s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beginning with a review of historical developments in the not-so-distant past, such as the Treaty of Wad-Ras (1860) and the Spanish protectorate in Morocco (1912-1956), this article analyses the process of organising, structuring and institutionalising Muslim individuals and communities in Spain between 1900 and 1992. In order to do this, it examines the organisational hallmarks of the Muslim communities in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla); underlines the role of education in the process of making these communities visible during the protectorate and the Franco dictatorship; and analyses the religious visibility achieved through the register of associations and the creation of Spanish Muslim associations. All this led to a process that culminated in the signing of the Cooperation Agreement in 1992 between the State and the Muslim community. Although a historical continuum of settlement models past and present of the Arab and/or Muslim community in Spain cannot be established, it is concluded that this contact has in fact modified certain institutional and social parameters, provided community organisation structures prior to the current ones and left physical evidence that remains in use (such as mosques and cemeteries). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the manner in which two competing empires, the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, acted through material culture and diplomacy to strengthen their influence in a territory lying at the periphery of Europe. To this end, the distribution, rhetoric and reception of the awarding of decorations is analysed, starting from the case of the great Romanian boyar Iordache Filipescu. Wallachia, an Ottoman province under Russian protectorate, in what is today south-eastern Romania, was at a moment of transition on the political level. Attracting loyalties and creating local action networks became diplomatic strategies, and one way in which pro-Ottoman and pro-Russian groupings may be traced in the Romanian space is through the intermediary of decorations. They transpose at the public level merits and services rendered to one of the two powers, but it is necessary to trace at the individual and family level the extent to which loyalty won in this way continued to exist. The message that the decorations transmitted remained a deceptive one: their possession was not equivalent to a transfer of power towards the holder in comparison with his compatriots, just as it did not guarantee complete adherence to the cause of the issuing power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the study on the nationalization of Czech cinema after the end of the Second World War in May 1945 and on continuities and discontinuities with the Protectorate era that preceded it. Topics include featuring films that were shot on sound stages or on locations and initiated in the years 1944 or 1945, before the end of the war; private producers such as Rozina Sebranec released their movies after war; and films that were discontinued and never finished such as Jenom krok.

The article discusses the history of Cameroon's national literatures. Topics discussed include Cameroon being the only African nation to have been colonized by three European nations, Cameroons to be administered as a part of the German Protectorate of Kamerun, and Southern Cameroons' cohabitation with La République du Cameroun.

Copyright of Historia Mexicana is the property of El Colegio de Mexico AC and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Meiji Restauration in Japan prefigured a change of mutual relations with Korea. Through coerced Ganghwa Treaty by Japan was Korea opened to the world in 1876. Subsequent three decades Japan sought to consolidate its position on the Korean Peninsula, which became not only economically but also strategically important territory for Japanese government. These efforts led to disputes with China (1894–95) and Russia (1904–05), of which Japan emerged as victor. The signing of the Protectorate Treaty of 1905 was a significant step forward for the strengthening of Japanese dominance over the Korean Peninsula. Five years later was Korea annexed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, first, the question of conceptualization of "Power" in the Theory of International Relations will be analyzed. Secondly, I will investigate which type of "power" China is exercising in the neighboring Central Asian region as well as the geographically remote African continent. To be exact, I will apply the classification of power suggested by researchers Barnett and Duvall (2005): compulsory, institutional, structural and productive power to analyze the question: which instruments or type of power is using China in order to spread its influence in the aforementioned areas? In closing, this paper argues that both in Central Asia and Africa China is not using any kind of compulsory power instead prefers to exercise other forms of power such as, for instance, institutional and productive powers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Historia is the property of Universidad de Costa Rica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article provides a critique of military aerial drones being "repurposed" as domestic security technologies. Mapping this process in regards to domestic policing agencies in the United States, the case of police drones speaks directly to the importation of actual military and colonial architectures into the routine spaces of the "homeland", disclosing insidious entwinements of war and police, metropole and colony, accumulation and securitization. The "boomeranging" of military UAVs is but one contemporary example how war power and police power have long been allied and it is the logic of security and the practice of pacification that animates both. The police drone is but one of the most nascent technologies that extends or reproduces the police's own design on the pacification of territory. Therefore, we must be careful not to fetishize the domestic police drone by framing this development as emblematic of a radical break from traditional policing mandates - the case of police drones is interesting less because it speaks about the militarization of the police, which it certainly does, but more about the ways in which it accentuates the mutual mandates and joint rationalities of war abroad and policing at home. Finally, the paper considers how the animus of police drones is productive of a particular form of organized suspicion, namely, the manhunt. Here, the "unmanning" of police power extends the police capability to not only see or know its dominion, but to quite literally track, pursue, and ultimately capture human prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alfred Martineau was a prominent colonial officer during the Third French Republic, and a scholar in history and international politics. His studies dealt with the problem of the origins of the "modern" form of colonialism in the second half of the nineteenth century, besides Ancien Régime French colonization. He saw the roots of "modern" European colonial rule in the activities of Dupleix and Bussy in eighteenth-century India. By underscoring the importance of both French officers, Martineau noticed important differences in the colonial activities of the two. According to Martineau, while Dupleix supported the idea of direct military conquest, Bussy favored a method of "indirect" colonization that was in some way the harbinger of the nineteenth-century model of protectorates. Yet in the light of the sources at our disposal today, the differences in the action of the two French colonizers are much less marked than in the frame depicted by Martineau. Both Dupleix and Bussy, in fact, used both coercion and more conciliatory policies toward indigenous India rulers. Dupleix and Bussy welded the usual economic and trade interests to the necessities of governance, in a similar way to French protectorates in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to give insights into my research on media assistance and its effects on democratisation and state building processes in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia). I try to analyse a process which lasts more than 15 years, and includes different aspects, from law making to establishing new media. I argue that most of the measures have been carried out in a state of imposition, in a semi-protectorate, that is Bosnia after the war. This period of post-war reconstruction in Bosnia is difficult to research for many reasons, starting from the obvious fact that processes are still going on, to the fact that different international players who were involved in the process over the years, hardly left archives available to the public to be analysed. What is left sometimes does not give a complete picture. In the paper different methods will be presented, that have been applied in order to overcome these difficulties. Thus, I try to give some recommendations for other researchers working on similar topics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad is the property of Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article considers the cooperation of the Spanish armed forces with Nazi Germany during World War II from the perspective of the Franco-Spanish protectorate of Morocco. The author provides a history of Spanish collusion with German forces, including the fall of Paris, France, to the Nazis and the Spanish annexation of Tangier, Morocco, both in 1940, the occupation of other French territories from 1940-1941, and the creation of the Atlantic Charter, a policy document that set goals for the Allied powers from 1941-1945.

Although for some time now the Francoist period has received more attention from Historiography, the study of Francoist social policy presents important obscurities, with gaps of great relevance. Social aid became an official institution of the Francoist regime with the aim of undertaking, under state protectorate, certain benevolent sociopolitical functions. The objective of works carried out on a local scale, in Almería, is to approach the study of said institution as part of a perfectly integrated and even necessary factor within a totalitarian system that forms early Francoism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers the author's insights on the strategic implications of Arabs' reawakening, which is occurring across North Africa and West Asia. He says that the period of foreign protectorates in the regions have been gone and this leads to uncertainties on the future. He states that the short-term effects of these uncertainties include higher gas and oil prices, slower recovery from America's Great Recession, and accelerated transfer of global wealth to East and South Asia's rising powers.

Results of the monitoring of the Sinai Baton Blue butterfly in its stronghold of Farsh Shoeib on Gebel Safsafa in the St Katherine Protectorate between 2004-9 is analysed to compare them with the detailed study of Mike James in 2002-3. The butterfly appears to have a three-year population cycle, with its population crashing regularly to very low levels. The conservation implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic variability of the solitary bee Anthophora pauperata, endemic to the St Katherine Protectorate, was assessed within and between seven wadis in South Sinai, Egypt. Low levels of variation were found, with most diversity within rather than between sites. There were a total of 34 bands, of which only seven were polymorphic among individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various forms of state "protectorates" or trusteeships militarily imposed to stabilize such failing or fallen states as Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Iraq, Afghanistan, and South Ossetia. Nineteenth century colonialist rationalizations of invasions as "protective" measures for the inhabitants are compared with rhetoric used to justify such 21st century military incursions as the United Nations' "protective" intervention in Afghanistan. The language of military and colonial rule in occupied countries is examined for its ideological and semantic coloration.

The purpose of this article is to focus on the role of Chinese revenue farmers in designating the borders of the various colonial territories and the states of Southeast Asia in the 19th century. According to historian Nicholas Tarling, most of southeast Asia was colonized and controlled by Western powers during the eighteenth through twentieth centuries, causing conflicts between the territories. The author argues that Chinese revenue farmers were considerably significant in giving substance to the formalistic pronouncements of remote diplomats and statesmen.

The article discusses the commitment of French authorities in Morocco in maintaining the differences between Berbers and Arabs. It notes on the beliefs that French scholars and military administrators that the country was a Berber country and that Arabization should be discouraged which is evident in the linguistic ideological upbringings of both French native policies and the studies that strengthens the first two decades of the Moroccan Protectorate. Moreover, it presents on the documentation of the Protectorate archival record of the two language ideologies.

In 1906 Itō Hirobumi invited Ume Kenjirō (1860-1910), a drafter of the Meiji Civil Code, to oversee the creation of a modern legal system in protectorate Korea. Ume's legal reform, which focused on writing a Korean civil law and establishing modern judicial administration, was imbued with nineteenth-century natural law theory, and it proceeded under the assumption of the continuing existence of an independent Korea. Cut short by annexation, Ume's saga in Korea highlights the insights and tensions underlying colonial legal reform and presents a powerful case that legal development under Japanese influence needs to be considered from a perspective detached from the nationalists paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the role of Edward Stone Parker as the Assistant Protector of Aborigines for the Loddon district of the Port Phillip Protectorate from 1839 to 1850. It investigates Parker and the Djadja Wurrung people who lived at the Loddon Aboriginal Station in the context of public and personal events throughout the period of the Protectorate and the following periods of gold rush and settlement. It argues that Parker's original protection project was overwhelmed by opposition to Indigenous rights, by the impossibility of insulating reserves from the impact of European settlement and by the constraints placed on Parker by the needs of his family.

The article focuses on the political legacy of Mafeking, South Africa in Botswana in relation to the location of the Bechuanaland Protectorate Administration headquarters in Imperial Reserve. It says that the Imperial Reserve served as the administrative capital of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. It mentions that the location of the headquarters of Bechuanaland Protectorate in Imperial Reserve affected the political and constitutional developments wherein government officials need to travel from Mafeking to Lobatse to attend meetings. It adds that the Bechuanaland Protectorate headquarters were transferred to Gaborone, Botswana which prompted the creation of Gaborone Yacht Club. Moreover, the Mafeking Discussion Group was considered as one of the legacies of Mafeking in Botswana.

How might Bosnia-Herzegovina attempt to institute democratic civil control over its military? This article applies Cottey. Edmonds, and Forster's thesis of first- and second generation civil-military relations to the protectorate of Bosnia-Herzegovina. It argues that in the case of Bosnia-Herzegovina, this agenda does not occur in a loosely overlapping fashion with the initiation of the first-generation agenda providing the basis upon which the second-generation agenda can be implemented. Rather, the reverse occurs: the second-generation, capacity-building agenda allows for the construction of state-level institutions in the defense and security sphere--not least a functioning ministry of defense--the hallmark of the first-generation macroinstitutional structural reform agenda. This approach may well prove to be appropriate for other protectorates, and it is of rising strategic significance in an age of preemptive action against failed and rogue states, regime change, and democratization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Virtually from the beginning of the protectorate (1912), the French in Morocco attempted to seal off the Berber-speaking tribes from the penetration of Islam and of the Arabic language. The present paper argues that this policy (the "Berber policy") was modeled on a similar policy (the "policy of races") adopted by the French in West Africa at the beginning of the twentieth century, the main difference being that in West Africa it was the "animists" who were to be sealed off. In both cases, the French acted as they did in order to ensure the permanence of their rule. It is argued that Paul Marty, the eminent authority on Islam in West Africa, was a key figure in the implementation of these policies in both regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Puerto Rican identity has been confounded by Puerto Rico's prolonged colonial relationship to Spain (nearly 80 years longer than that of most other Latin American colonies) and its abrupt change in status to that of United States protectorate in 1898 after the Spanish American War. Increasingly, Puerto Rican identity has been theorized in sole reference to the political relationship with the United States. The residual presence of Spain and Spaniards in the construction of the new Puerto Rican collective, and the denial or nostalgia that might still be elicited by the former empire, have gradually receded into the background. Perhaps surprisingly, the presence of Spain and reactions to it find their widest outlet in popular culture. This article analyzes the complex portrayal of the continuing substratum of the Spanish heritage in Puerto Rico in one example from Puerto Rican popular culture—Jacobo Morales's 1994 film "Linda Sara." The film's characters either willingly or unknowingly falsify their Spanish past, recounting their (hi)story according to their present needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of African Studies Review is the property of Cambridge University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Focuses on the expedition of Francis Younghusband on July 18, 1903, which started as a peaceful mission to negotiate small frontier and trade disputes and ended up as an armed expedition, to Lhasa in China. Goal of establishing a virtual British protectorate over Tibet by the September 1904 Lhasa Convention; Newspaper articles that described the mission; Action at Chumi Shengo in March 1904.

The article discusses employment discrimination suits and the incompatibility of rule 404. Faced with conflicting mandates, courts routinely allow discrimination plaintiffs to introduce character propensity evidence in violation of Rule 404. Yet this failure to apply the Rule is hardly a consequence of lawyers forgetting to object or judges asleep at the bench; the cause of action itself requires a showing of mental state that effectively compels most plaintiffs in discrimination suits to introduce propensity proofs in order to prevail. Analyzing the logic behind the law illustrates this point.

Examines the relationship between British colonial administrators, Tswana Dikgosi (chiefs) and their subjects in the Bechuanaland Protectorate from 1899 to 1957. Focus on taxation; Argument that Bechuanaland became a British territory through negotiations the Tswana rulers were able to protect their interests aggressively but with little risk of being deposed; Ways in which the Tswana succession system by primogeniture worked to the rulers' advantage whenever the British sought to replace them; Evidence that subordinate tribes sometimes fared badly under Tswana rule.

This article focuses on civil-military relations in the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco in the early decades of the twentieth century. Its aim is not only to recover a historical approach to civil-military relations that seems underrepresented in recent studies, but also to contribute to an explanation of the origins of the Spanish Civil War using current civil-military relations theory. It is argued that the rebellion against the Second Republic in Morocco (July 1936), which triggered the Spanish Civil War, was a consequence of a long-term struggle between civilians and the military in the Protectorate rather than a sudden reaction of the Colonial Army prompted by threats of social revolution in mainland Spain. It is also argued that the attitude of the Moroccan population was crucial to explain its success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the relations of multi-racial groups in Nairobi between 1912 and 1916. The emphasis of commercial and residential segregation in Nairobi is focused on the East African Protectorate where multi-racial relationships are most intense. Kenya is an East Africa Protectorate before 1920. Thus, the construction of the railway in Uganda has paved the way for the Protectorate. According to the enacted East Africa Township Ordinance in 1903, Nairobi was declared a township. Asians also influenced the East African coast before the 19th century.

This article presents a study on the Crown Agents, the British commercial and financial agent of the Crown colonies and protectorates. The Office of the Crown Agents acted as the British commercial and financial agent of the Crown colonies and protectorates, which were required by the Colonial Office (CO) to use its services. It supplied all non-locally manufactured public sector stores; organized the provision of external finance; managed colonial investments; supervised the construction of railways, harbours, and so on; and performed various personnel functions, such as the payment of pensions and some salaries. Established in 1833, when it became clear that the existing agents, most of them CO clerks nearing the end of their careers, were unable to perform their duties satisfactorily, the Agency at first represented both the self-governing and Crown colonies. Treasury concern that its flotation of responsible government loans gave the impression that these issues possessed an imperial guarantee, however, prompted the CO in the 1880s order the Agency to act only for dependent colonies and protectorates.

Focuses on the ineffectiveness of political philosopher Edmund Burke's theory of trusteeship with respect to Indian politics. Disparity of the political values of India and Great Britain; Burke's revision of his approach to appeal to a natural law standard; Defects of the theory; Theory's lack of popular accountability; Failure of the theory to provide a government which was effective and responsible.

The article focuses on Spanish General Francisco Franco's national revolution in Morocco against the mainland Republican Government. In their initial objectives the leaders of the Tetuán uprising gave top priority to the seizure of the High Commissariat, political headquarters of the Spanish Protectorate. The forcible capture of this key establishment paralleled the not altogether independent decision of both the Caliph and the Grand Vizir to side with the rebels, and participation of Moroccan Troops in the rebel "Crusade" became a major contributing factor in Franco's Early military victories. Franco also enlisted the aid of the prestigious Moroccan leader Si Dniss Rifi to recruit and armed militia, but he met with genuine reluctance from Caid Zellal in the west and Caid Sliman el Khatabi in the east. For those Moslems who hesitated to cooperate, there always remained the persuasive threat of naked force to convince them. The Moroccan nationalist leaders later seized upon the nationalism issue in order to justify the support which they had first given General Franco's "Crusade." There is a strong indication that the Germans themselves dealt directly with leading Moroccan leaders. The Germans, moreover, expertly played up their racial doctrines in that region. French national interest and Moroccan politics notwithstanding, the real beneficiary of the July 1936 military rebellion was Nazi Germany.

The article discusses some aspects of religion and politics in England during 1660-1767. Charles II, in 1660, epitomized centuries of history and at the same time provided a text which Englishmen were to disregard for many generations. While England was still within the Roman fold, disputes between the spiritual and secular authorities constantly cropped up, and the balance of power shifted according to the capacity of the personalities or the nature of the circumstances. The struggles over the jurisdiction of the courts, taxation, and patronage instigated a continuous "border warfare." At the same time, the diffused influence of the church over economics and domestic relations only intensified the realization that no wall divided the spiritual from the secular, that religion impinged on every phase of social life. The enactments of Henry VIII, while redefining, by no means simplified the problem; rather they sired new aspects, compelling statesmen, theorists, and the men in the country lane to readjust their opinions concerning ecclesiastical and temporal authority. The early Stuart period brought no respite. During the years of "Commonwealth and Protectorate," religious crises bubbled if possible with even greater vigor. The Clarendon Code inaugurated a new era in the relation of religion and politics in England, an era that did not complete its particular cycle until 1828-29.

The article discusses the constructive roles of feuding and competition in the social order of clan communities in pre-1912 Morocco. Conflicts usually developed among clan groups and had become an integral part of social patterns. The extended family and the clan were the fundamental reference points for the average Moroccan before the French protectorate was established. A hierarchically arranged system of segmental opposition played a significant role in the institutionalized pattern of feuding in pre-protectorate Morocco. Several social changes led to a redistribution of population, which affected Zaer social institutions.