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A toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic model was constructed to delineate the exposure-response causality. The model could be used: to predict metal accumulation considering the influence of water chemistry and biotic ligand characteristics; to simulate the dynamics of subcellular partitioning considering metabolism, detoxification, and elimination; and to predict chronic toxicity as represented by biomarker responses from the concentration of metals in the fraction of potentially toxic metal. The model was calibrated with data generated from an experiment in which the Zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha was exposed to Cu at nominal concentrations of 25 and 50 mu g/L and with varied Na+ concentrations in water up to 4.0 mmol/L for 24 days. Data used in the calibration included physicochemical conditions of the exposure environment, Cu concentrations in subcellular fractions, and oxidative stress-induced responses, i.e. glutathione-S-transferase activity and lipid peroxidation. The model explained the dynamics of subcellular Cu partitioning and the effect mechanism reasonably well. With a low affinity constant for Na+ binding to Cu2+ uptake sites, Na+ had limited influence on Cu2+ uptake at low Na+ concentrations in water. Copper was taken up into the metabolically available pool (MAP) at a largely higher rate than into the cellular debris. Similar Cu concentrations were found in these two fractions at low exposure levels, which could be attributed to sequestration pathways (metabolism, detoxification, and elimination) in the MAP. However, such sequestration was inefficient as shown by similar Cu concentrations in detoxified fractions with increasing exposure level accompanied by the increasing Cu concentration in the MAP.

in press Interest in local environmental conditions and the occurrence and behaviour of parasites has increased over the last three decades, leading to the discipline of Environmental Parasitology. The aim of this discipline is to investigate how anthropogenically altered environmental factors influence the occurrence of parasites and how the combined effects of pollutants and parasites affect the health of their hosts. Accordingly, in this paper we provide an overview of the direct and indirect effects of pollutants on the occurrence and distribution of fish parasites. However, based on current knowledge, it is difficult to draw general conclusions about these interdependencies, as the effects of pollutants on free-living (larval) parasite stages, as well as their effects on ectoparasites, depend on the pollutant-host-parasite combination as well as on other environmental factors that can modulate the harmful effects of pollutants. Furthermore, the question of the combined effects of the simultaneous occurrence of parasites and pollutants on the physiology and health of the fish hosts is of interest. For this purpose, we differentiate between dominance effects of individual stressors over other, additive or synergistically reinforcing effects as well as combined antagonistic effects. For the latter, there are only very few studies, most of which were also carried out on invertebrates, so that this field of research presents itself as very promising for future investigations.

Background: Stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen can deliver insights into trophic interactions between organisms. While many studies on free-living organisms are available, the number of those focusing on trophic interactions between hosts and their associated parasites still remains scarce. In some cases information about taxa (e.g. acanthocephalans) is completely missing. Additionally, available data revealed different and occasionally contrasting patterns, depending on the parasite’s taxonomic position and its degree of development, which is most probably determined by its feeding strategy (absorption of nutrients through the tegument versus active feeding) and its localization in the host. Methods: Using stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen we provided first data on the trophic position of an acanthocephalan species with respect to its fish host. Barbels (Barbus barbus) infected only with adult acanthocephalans Pomphorhynchus laevis as well as fish co-infected with the larval (L4) nematodes Eustrongylides sp. from host body cavity were investigated in order to determine the factors shaping host-parasite trophic interactions. Fish were collected in different seasons, to study also potential isotopic shifts over time, whereas barbels with single infection were obtained in summer and co-infected ones in autumn. Results: Acanthocephalans as absorptive feeders showed lower isotope discrimination values of δ 15N than the fish host. Results obtained for the acanthocephalans were in line with other parasitic taxa (e.g. cestodes), which exhibit a similar feeding strategy. We assumed that they feed mainly on metabolites, which were reprocessed by the host and are therefore isotopically lighter. In contrast, the nematodes were enriched in the heavier isotope δ 15N with respect to their host and the acanthocephalans, respectively. As active feeders they feed on tissues and blood in the body cavity of the host and thus showed isotope discrimination patterns resembling those of predators. We also observed seasonal differences in the isotope signatures of fish tissues and acanthocephalans, which were attributed to changes in food composition of the host and to seasonality in the transmission and development of acanthocephalans. Conclusions: This study provided first data on trophic interaction between an acanthocephalan species and its associated host, which support the tendency already described for other taxa with similar nutrition strategy (e.g. cestodes). Actively feeding taxa such as larval Eustrongylides sp., appear to act like predators as it can be seen from their isotope discrimination values. However, future research on additional host-parasite systems and especially on acanthocephalans is needed in order to corroborate these conclusions.

OA Förderung 2016 Background: A large number of studies demonstrated that acanthocephalans exhibit a high metal accumulation potential and thus can be used as sensitive accumulation indicators. However, similar to free-living bioindicators, a seasonal variation in metal concentrations in parasites might occur. Accordingly, the influence of seasonality has to be elucidated if parasites should be applied as sentinels. Methods: In order to assess a possible seasonal profile of element concentrations, the concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, V and Zn in the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis and in its host barbel (Barbus barbus) were analysed in a seasonal manner (spring, summer and autumn) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results: Five elements (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) were detected in significantly higher concentrations in the parasites compared to host muscle, intestine and liver. Their levels in P. laevis showed a clear seasonal pattern, while the concentrations in the fish tissues remained similar during the year. The highest concentrations in the parasites were found in autumn, followed by spring and summer. Evidence from the literature suggests that this profile coincides with the seasonality of acanthocephalan transmission, as their annual concentration profile reflected the mean individual weight pattern during the year. Parasite infrapopulations in autumn consisted mainly of young worms which are characterised by an accelerated metabolism and a higher surface to volume ratio resulting in higher element concentrations when compared to older worms which are assumed to slow down their metabolism and additionally excrete metals with their eggs. Conclusions: Based on the available data from the present study and literature, a model is suggested, which visualises the accumulation kinetic of several elements under natural conditions. According to the element accumulation data the lifespan of P. laevis in barbel was roughly estimated to range between six and eight months.

The liver fluke Fasciola gigantica is a trematode parasite of ruminants and humans that occurs naturally in Africa and Asia. Cases of human fascioliasis, attributable at least in part to F. gigantica, are significantly increasing in the last decades. The introduced snail species Galba truncatula was already identified to be an important intermediate host for this parasite and the efficient invader Pseudosuccinea columella is another suspect in this case. Therefore, we investigated snails collected in irrigation canals in Fayoum governorate in Egypt for prevalence of trematodes with focus on P. columella and its role for the transmission of F. gigantica. Species were identified morphologically and by partial sequencing of the cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (COI). Among all 689 snails found at the 21 sampling sites, P. columella was the most abundant snail with 296 individuals (42.96%) and it was also the most dominant species at 10 sites. It was not found at 8 sites. Molecular detection by PCR and sequencing of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) revealed infections with F. gigantica (3.38%), Echinostoma caproni (2.36%) and another echinostome (7.09%) that could not be identified further according to its sequence. No dependency of snail size and trematode infection was found. Both high abundance of P. columella in the Fayoum irrigation system and common infection with F. gigantica might be a case of parasite spill-back (increased prevalence in local final hosts due to highly susceptible introduced intermediate host species) from the introduced P. columella to the human population, explaining at least partly the observed increase of reported fascioliasis-cases in Egypt. Eichhornia crassipes, the invasive water hyacinth, which covers huge areas of the irrigation canals, offers safe refuges for the amphibious P. columella during molluscicide application. As a consequence, this snail dominates snail communities and efficiently transmits F. gigantica. OA Förderung 2014

Duisburg, Essen, Univ., Diss., 2010 Summary The main focus of the current thesis was to extend the knowledge about the use of fish parasites as bioindicators. On one hand the research emphasis was aimed at the faunistical and ecological aspects of parasite communities of barbel (Barbus barbus) in relation to environment conditions - the use of parasites as effect indicators (Chapter 1). On the other hand the thesis evaluated and reverified the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis as accumulation indicator, while covering all critical aspects (as summarized by Sures, 2003) concerning its application - the effects of size and sex composition of its infracommunities (Chapter 2) as well as the seasonality (Chapter 3) on the metal uptake process in the parasite. Finally, the thesis delivered a detailed metal monitoring survey focused mainly on the lower Danube (Chapter 4), which was perforemed using the suggested barbel – P. laevis system. The important results are summarized in the following: Chapter 1: The endohelminth fauna of barbel correlates with water quality of the Danube River in Bulgaria.  Infection of barbel with ten species of metazoan parasites including three trematodes, three acanthocephalans and four nematodes was observed in fish collected from three localities in the Bulgarian part of the river Danube between summer 2004 and summer 2007.  New host records for three parasitic species – the nematode larvae of genus Eustrongylides sp. and Hysterothylacium sp. as well as the acanthocephalan Leptorhynchoides plagicephalus were recorded for first time for the host Barbus barbus.  The most prevalent species was the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis, which was also the dominant species of the intestinal component communities at all sampling sites.  The second most frequent parasite at all Danube localities was Rhabdochona hellichi, which occurred in significantly higher numbers at the less polluted sites.  The composition as well as the diversity characteristics of the parasite communities showed a clear correlation with the composition of the invertebrate fauna and water quality – overall, the diversity of helminth communities increased with decreasing levels of nutrients and pollutants at all sampling sites. Chapter 2: Is metal accumulation in Pomphorhynchus laevis dependent on parasite sex or infrapopulation size?  From total twelve analyzed elements (As, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sn, V, Zn) five (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) were detected in significantly higher concentrations in the acanthocephalan P. laevis compared to its host tissues (muscle, intestine, liver)  According to the calculated mean bioconcentration factors, three more elements (Co, Mn, V) usually were with higher concentrations in P. laevis.  Comparisons between high and low infected fish revealed significant differences only for V with higher concentrations for the heavily infected group.  Concerning sex specific metal accumulation V and Zn showed significant differences (V, at p < 0.05; Zn, at P = 0.05), with higher levels in females of P. laevis each. Chapter 3: Seasonal differences of metal accumulation in Pomphorhynchus laevis and its definitive host Barbus barbus.  The concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn were significantly higher in the parasite samples presented than in the host’s tissues.  These elements showed also a clear seasonal pattern, while the concentrations in the fish tissues remained similar in spring, summer and autumn.  Seasonal variation in the mean individual weight of parasite infrapopulations, whereas the infrapopulations in autumn characterized with significantly lower mean individual weight than these in spring and summer - sign for predominant young specimens.  Composition pattern of all accumulated elements reflected the pattern of the mean individual weight over the year - the highest concentrations obtained for As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in P. laevis were found in autumn, followed by spring and summer.  Concentration of Cd and Pb in P. laevis correlated negatively with the mean worm weight.  Significant differences for the metals Cd and Pb were found, when the concentration in worms from summer and autumn were compared. Chapter 4: Application of acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis from its host barbel (Barbus barbus) as metal indicator in the Danube River.  The elements As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn were found to be significantly higher accumulated in the parasite compared to its host tissues.  The concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in P. laevis exceeded the concentrations reported for the water column at the selected sampling sites.  The longitudinal pattern of As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in the parasite samples corresponded to the background available data (for water and suspended particulate matter) along the Danube River in Bulgaria.  The comparisons between upper and lower Danube, performed in summer 2007, demonstrated increased concentrations of As, Cd and Pb in the lower Danube, whereas As showed also a peak in the upper reaches. Their concentration pattern reflected the pattern of suspended particular matter obtained during the 2nd Joint Danube Survey performed also in summer 2007.  The long term monitoring at sampling site Kozloduy (685 km) showed progressive decrease in the concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn for the period summer 2004 to summer 2007, while the As contents remained similar. Conclusions and future prospects The collective data suggests that the fish parasites can be successfully used to characterize the ecosystems health and integrity. Following the alternations in composition and diversity of their communities, it was possible to detect differences in the environmental conditions between investigated sampling sites. Therefore fish parasites can be efficiently applied as effect indicators in the aquatic monitoring. The last published data on parasite fauna of barbel for the Bulgarian part of Danube River was from 1960 and 70-ties (Kakacheva-Avramova, 1962, 1977; Margaritov, 1959, 1966). The results obtained from the present investigation showed that the fauna composition completely differed from the one reported 40-50 years ago. The disrepancy can be associated with the changed/disturbed ecological conditions in the investigated river stretch. Further investigations aimed on other river stretches in middle and upper part of the river and on other aquatic habitats as well should be performed for the sake of the future implementation of fish parasites as effect indicators in the Danube River and in the hydrobiological praxis as well. The faunistical data from the different parts of the Danube should be compared and subsequently correlated with the local abiotic and biotic data, in order to confirm profoundly the relationship between parasites and environmental conditions. Furthermore, different host-parasite systems should be also be included in such surveys and studied from a bioindication perspective. A major goal of the current thesis was filling in on the lack of knowledge regarding the application of fish acanthocephalans as accumulation indicatiors. The obtained results suggested that the size and the sex composition of acanthocephalan’s infrapopulations play no considerable role in the metal uptake process. Therefore, in metal monitoring surveys, especially in those aimed on toxic elements such as As, Cd and Pb, these aspects should not be taken into account. Worth noticing is that the results regarded the acanthocephalan P. laevis. If other acanthocephalan species are taken as accumulation indicators, these aspects should be studied in order to confirm the tendencies obtained in the thesis. On the other hand the results revealed a seasonal pattern in the metal uptake, which was found to be dependent on the stage of acanthocephalan’s development in the final host. Thus, the seasonality of transmission of P. laevis under the local climate conditions should be considered in order to make our monitoring surveys more precise. In some geographical regions, where the seasonality of transmission is not clearly pronounced, the seasonal factor can be suppressed. Of course, the sentinel features of fish acanthocephalans should also be investigated under different climate conditions, in order to select the proper sampling periods for metal monitoring surveys. The same should be done with other acanthocephalan species, if they are taken as metal indicators. With the help of the background metal monitoring data delivered by the International Commission for Protection of Danube River (ICPDR), it was confirmed that the levels of the elements accumulated in P. laevis corresponded to these in the environment. The pollution profile in the Danube River basin, obtained during the both Joint Danube Surveys (in 2001 and 2007), was additionally confirmed by the concentrations measured in the parasites. Desipite the mobility of the fish host, the results of this thesis suggest the fish-parasite system is a perfect model in the field of ecological monitoring. However, future detailed analysis and correlations between the raw data from the JDS2 and obtained parasite data are required. Unfortunately, this data concerning the element concentrations in water, SPM, sediment and biota is still not available. Regarding the practical use of a fish-parasite system as sentinel, the first step was made during the second Joint Danube Survey in 2007, where fish muscle tissue was analyzed. During the thesis I had the opportunity to contribute to the survey with metal analysis carried out on barbel – P. laevis system. The combinded results suggest that the additional use of fish acanthocephalans as sentinels represents a more powerful approach in heavy metal monitoring surveys, due to the higher accumulation capacity of acanthocephalans compared to fish muscle. Consequently, in future monitoring programs the fish parasites should be accessorily implemented as sentinels, especially in large and complex lotic systems like Danube River.