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María González-Cao,1 Niki Karachaliou,1 Santiago Viteri,1 Daniela Morales-Espinosa,1 Cristina Teixidó,2 Jesús Sánchez Ruiz,3 Miquel Ángel Molina-Vila,2 Mariacarmela Santarpia,4 Rafael Rosell1,2,5,61Translational Cancer Research Unit, Instituto Oncológico Dr Rosell, Quirón Dexeus University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain; 2Pangaea Biotech SL, Barcelona, Spain; 3Centro Nacional de Investigación Oncología (CNIO), Madrid, Spain; 4Medical Oncology Unit, Human Pathology Department, University of Messina, Messina, Italy; 5Cancer Biology and Precision Medicine Program, Catalan Institute of Oncology, Germans Trias i Pujol Health Sciences Institute and Hospital, Campus Can Ruti, Badalona, Barcelona, Spain; 6Fundación Molecular Oncology Research, Barcelona, SpainAbstract: Increased understanding of tumor immunology has led to the development of effective immunotherapy treatments. One of the most important advances in this field has been due to pharmacological design of antibodies against immune checkpoint inhibitors. Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies are currently in advanced phases of clinical development for several tumors, including lung cancer. Results from Phase I–III trials with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies in non-small-cell lung cancer have demonstrated response rates of around 20% (range, 16%–50%). More importantly, responses are long-lasting (median duration of response, 18 months) and fast (50% of responses are detected at time of first tumor evaluation) with very low grade 3–4 toxicity (less than 5%). Recently, the anti-PD-1 antibody pembrolizumab received US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) breakthrough therapy designation for treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer, supported by data from a Phase Ib trial. Another anti-PD-1 antibody, nivolumab, has also been approved for lung cancer based on survival advantage demonstrated in recently released data from a Phase III trial in squamous cell lung cancer.Keywords: immunotherapy, immunoncology, cancer, checkpoint inhibitors

Maria González-Cao,1 Xueting Cai,2 Jilian Wilhelmina Paulina Bracht,3 Xuan Han,2 Yang Yang,2 Carlos Pedraz-Valdunciel,4 Teresa Morán,5 Javier García-Corbacho,6 Andrés Aguilar,1 Reyes Bernabé,7 Pedro De Marchi,8,9 Luciane Sussuchi da Silva,8 Leticia Ferro Leal,8 Rui Manuel Reis,8,10,11 Jordi Codony-Servat,4 Eloisa Jantus-Lewintre,12– 14 Miguel Angel Molina-Vila,4 Peng Cao,2,15 Rafael Rosell1,16 1Translational Cancer Research Unit, Instituto Oncológico Dr Rosell, Dexeus University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain; 2Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Department of Affiliated Hospital, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China; 3Amsterdam University Medical Center (UMC), Amsterdam, The Netherlands; 4Laboratory of Oncology, Pangaea Oncology, Quirón Dexeus University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain; 5Medical Oncology Department, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), Germans Trias i Pujol Hospital, Badalona, Spain; 6Medical Oncology Department (Hospital Clinic)/Translational Genomics and Targeted Therapies in Solid Tumors (IDIBAPs), Barcelona, Spain; 7Medical Oncology Department, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío, Sevilla, Spain; 8Molecular Oncology Research Center; Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, Brazil; 9Oncoclinicas, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 10Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; 11ICVS/3b’s – PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal; 12Valencian Community Foundation Principe Felipe Research Center, Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Valencia, Spain; 13Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain; 14Universitat Politècnica de Valencia, Biotechnology Department, Valencia, Spain; 15College of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, People’s Republic of China; 16Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Germans Trias i Pujol Health Sciences Institute and Hospital (IGTP), Badalona, SpainCorrespondence: Rafael Rosell, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Germans Trias i Pujol Health Sciences Institute and Hospital (IGTP), Camí de les Escoless/n, Badalona, Barcelona, 08916, Spain, Tel +34 930330520, Email rrosell@iconcologia.net Peng Cao, College of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210023, People’s Republic of China, Tel +86 85608666, Email cao_peng@njucm.edu.cnPurpose: High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) is subject to exportin 1 (XPO1)-dependent nuclear export, and it is involved in functions implicated in resistance to immunotherapy. We investigated whether HMGB1 mRNA expression was associated with response to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).Patients and Methods: RNA was isolated from pretreatment biopsies of patients with advanced NSCLC treated with ICI. Gene expression analysis of several genes, including HMGB1, was conducted using the NanoString Counter analysis system (PanCancer Immune Profiling Panel). Western blotting analysis and cell viability assays in EGFR and KRAS mutant cell lines were carried out. Evaluation of the antitumoral effect of ICI in combination with XPO1 blocker (selinexor) and trametinib was determined in a murine Lewis lung carcinoma model.Results: HMGB1 mRNA levels in NSCLC patients treated with ICI correlated with progression-free survival (PFS) (median PFS 9.0 versus 18.0 months, P=0.008, hazard ratio=0.30 in high versus low HMGB1). After TNF-α stimulation, HMGB1 accumulates in the cytoplasm of PC9 cells, but this accumulation can be prevented by using selinexor or antiretroviral drugs. Erlotinib or osimertinib with selinexor in EGFR-mutant cells and trametinib plus selinexor in KRAS mutant abolish tumor cell proliferation. Selinexor with a PD-1 inhibitor with or without trametinib abrogates the tumor growth in the murine Lewis lung cancer model.Conclusion: An in-depth exploration of the functions of HMGB1 mRNA and protein is expected to uncover new potential targets and provide a basis for treating metastatic NSCLC in combination with ICI.Keywords: HMGB1, immunotherapy, non-small cell lung cancer, Lewis lung cancer murine model, K-Ras mutations

Cristina Aguado,1,* Maria-de-los-Llanos Gil,2,* Zaira Yeste,1 Ana Giménez-Capitán,1 Cristina Teixidó,1 Niki Karachaliou,2 Santiago Viteri,2 Rafael Rosell,1,2 Miguel A Molina-Vila1 1Laboratory of Oncology, Pangaea Oncology, 2Dr Rosell Oncology Institute, Quirón Dexeus University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain *These authors contributed equally to this work Abstract: Fusion of the anaplastic lymphoma receptor tyrosine kinase gene (ALK) with the echinoderm microtubule-associated protein 4 gene (EML4) is the second most common actionable alteration in non-small-cell lung cancer, with a frequency of 5%. Here, we present a case of an EML4-ALK-positive patient with an atypical in-frame insertion from the LTBP1 gene in the canonical junction of variant 1. The patient was a 39-year-old never-smoker female diagnosed with Stage IV lung adenocarcinoma. A core biopsy was negative for EGFR and KRAS mutations but positive for ALK immunohistochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridization. When submitted to nCounter, the sample showed a 3'/5' imbalance indicative of an ALK rearrangement, but failed to give a positive signal for any of the variants tested. Finally, a band with a molecular weight higher than expected appeared after reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis. When Sanger sequencing was performed, the band revealed an atypical EML4-ALK fusion gene with an in-frame 129 bp insertion. A 115 bp segment of the insertion corresponded to an intronic region of LTBP1, a gene located in the short arm of chromosome 2, between ALK and EML4. The patient received crizotinib and showed a good therapeutic response that is still ongoing after 12 months. Our result suggests that short in-frame insertions of other genes in the EML4-ALK junction do not affect the sensitivity of the EML4-ALK fusion protein to crizotinib. Keywords: lung cancer, NSCLC, EML4-ALK, LTBP1, crizotinib, targeted therapy

Background: The EGFR pathway is involved in intrinsic and acquired resistance to a wide variety of targeted therapies in cancer. Vaccination represents an alternative to the administration of anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies, such as cetuximab or panitumumab. Here, we tested if anti-EGF antibodies generated by vaccination (anti-EGF VacAbs) could potentiate the activity of drugs targeting the ERK/MAPK and PI3K/Akt pathways., Methods: Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), colorectal cancer (CRC) and melanoma cell lines harboring KRAS, NRAS, BRAF and PIK3CA mutations were used. Anti-EGF VacAbs were obtained by immunizing rabbits with a fusion protein containing a synthetic, highly mutated variant of human EGF. Cell viability was determined by MTT, total and phosphorylated proteins by Western blotting, cell cycle distribution and cell death by flow cytometry and emergence of resistance by microscopic examination in low density cultures., Results: Anti-EGF VacAbs potentiated the antiproliferative effects of MEK, KRAS G12C, BRAF, PI3K and Akt inhibitors in KRAS, NRAS, BRAF and PIK3CA mutant cells and delayed the appearance of resistant clones in vitro. The effects of anti-EGF VacAbs were comparable or superior to those of panitumumab and cetuximab. The combination of anti-EGF VacAbs with the targeted inhibitors effectively suppressed EGFR downstream pathways and sera from patients immunized with an anti-EGF vaccine also blocked activation of EGFR effectors., Conclusions: Anti-EGF VacAbs enhance the antiproliferative effects of drugs targeting the ERK/MAPK and PIK3CA/Akt pathways. Our data provide a rationale for clinical trials testing anti-EGF vaccination combined with inhibitors selected according to the patient's genetic profile., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Dr. d'Hondt is a full-time employee of IN3BIO. Dr d'Hondt has a patent Methods and compositions for inhibition of EGF/EGFR pathway in combination with tyrosine kinase inhibitors pending to IN3BIO. All remaining authors have declared no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Introduction: As recently evidenced by the ADAURA trial, most patients with stages IB to IIIA of resected EGFR-mutant lung adenocarcinoma benefit from osimertinib as adjuvant therapy. Nevertheless, predictive markers of response and recurrence are still an unmet need for more than 10% of these patients. Some circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been reported to play a role in tumor growth and proliferation. In this project, we studied circRNA expression levels in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded lung tumor samples to explore their biomarker potential and develop a machine learning (ML)-based signature that could predict the benefit of adjuvant EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with EGFR-mutant NSCLC., Methods: Patients with surgically resected EGFR mutant-positive, stages I to IIIB NSCLC were recruited from February 2007 to December 2015. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tumor samples were retrospectively collected from those patients with a follow-up period of more than or equal to 36 months (N = 76). Clinicopathologic features were annotated. Total RNA was purified and quantified prior nCounter processing with our circRNA custom panel. Data analysis and ML were performed taking into consideration circRNA expression levels and recurrence-free survival (RFS). RFS was defined from the day of surgery to the day when recurrence was detected radiologically or the death owing to any cause., Results: Of the 76 patients with EGFR mutation-positive NSCLC included in the study, 34 relapsed within 3 years after resection. The median age of the relapsing cohort was 71.5 (range: 49-89) years. Most patients were nonsmokers (n = 21; 61.8%) and of female sex (n = 21; 61.8%). Most cases (n = 17; 50%) presented an exon 21 mutation, whereas 15 and four patients had an exon 19 and exon 18 mutation, respectively. Differential expression analysis revealed that circRUNX1, along with circFUT8 and circAASDH, was up-regulated in relapsing patients ( p < 0.05 and >2 fold-change). A ML-based circRNA signature predictive of recurrence in patients with EGFR mutation-positive NSCLC, comprising circRUNX1, was developed. Our final model including selected 6-circRNA signature with random forest algorithm was able to classify relapsing patients with an accuracy of 83% and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.91.RFS was significantly shorter not only for the subgroup of patients with high versus low circRUNX1 expression but also for the group classified as recurrent by the ML circRNA signature when compared with those classified as nonrecurrent., Conclusions: Our findings suggest that circRUNX1 and the presented ML-developed signature could be novel tools to predict the benefit of adjuvant EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors with regard to RFS in patients with EGFR-mutant NSCLC. The training and validation phases of our ML signature will be conducted including bigger independent cohorts., (© 2023 The Authors.)

This study evaluates the efficacy of combining targeted therapies with MET or SHP2 inhibitors to overcome MET-mediated resistance in different NSCLC subtypes. A prevalence study was conducted for MET amplification and overexpression in samples from patients with NSCLC who relapsed on ALK, ROS1, or RET tyrosine kinase inhibitors. MET-mediated resistance was detected in 37.5% of tissue biopsies, which allow the detection of MET overexpression, compared to 7.4% of liquid biopsies. The development of drug resistance by MET overexpression was confirmed in EGFR ex19del -, KRAS G12C -, HER2 ex20ins -, and TPM3-NTRK1 -mutant cell lines. The combination of targeted therapy with MET or SHP2 inhibitors was found to overcome MET-mediated resistance in both in vitro and in vivo assays. This study highlights the importance of considering MET overexpression as a resistance driver to NSCLC targeted therapies to better identify patients who could potentially benefit from combination approaches with MET or SHP2 inhibitors., Competing Interests: N.R., C.S., D.K., MA.S., D.M., C.E., J.A., and N.K. are employees of the healthcare business of Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany. MA.M-V., N.J-A., and S.G-R., are employees of Pangaea Oncology, Hospital Universitario Quiron-Dexeus, Barcelona, Spain. No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Background: The analysis of liquid biopsies brings new opportunities in the precision oncology field. Under this context, extracellular vesicle circular RNAs (EV-circRNAs) have gained interest as biomarkers for lung cancer (LC) detection. However, standardized and robust protocols need to be developed to boost their potential in the clinical setting. Although nCounter has been used for the analysis of other liquid biopsy substrates and biomarkers, it has never been employed for EV-circRNA analysis of LC patients., Methods: EVs were isolated from early-stage LC patients ( n = 36) and controls ( n = 30). Different volumes of plasma, together with different number of pre-amplification cycles, were tested to reach the best nCounter outcome. Differential expression analysis of circRNAs was performed, along with the testing of different machine learning (ML) methods for the development of a prognostic signature for LC., Results: A combination of 500 μL of plasma input with 10 cycles of pre-amplification was selected for the rest of the study. Eight circRNAs were found upregulated in LC. Further ML analysis selected a 10-circRNA signature able to discriminate LC from controls with AUC ROC of 0.86., Conclusions: This study validates the use of the nCounter platform for multiplexed EV-circRNA expression studies in LC patient samples, allowing the development of prognostic signatures.

(1) Background: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as crucial players in the communication between cells in both physiological and pathological scenarios. The functions of EVs are strongly determined by their molecular content, which includes all bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, RNA, and, as more recently described, double-stranded DNA. It has been shown that in oncological settings DNA associated with EVs (EV-DNA) is representative of the genome of parental cells and that it reflects the mutational status of the tumor, gaining much attention as a promising source of biomarker mutant DNA. However, one of the challenges in studies of EV-DNA is the lack of standardization of protocols for the DNA extraction from EVs, as well as ways to assess quality control, which hinders its future implementation in clinics. (2) Methods: We performed a comprehensive comparison of commonly used approaches for EV-DNA extraction by assessing DNA quantity, quality, and suitability for downstream analyses. (3) Results: We here established strategic points to consider for EV-DNA preparation for mutational analyses, including qPCR and NGS. (4) Conclusions: We put in place a workflow that can be applied for the detection of clinically relevant mutations in the EV-DNA of cancer patients.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has enabled a deeper knowledge of the molecular landscape in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), identifying a growing number of targetable molecular alterations in key genes. However, NGS profiling of liquid biopsies risk for false positive and false negative calls and parameters assessing the quality of NGS calls remains lacking. In this study, we have evaluated the positive percent agreement (PPA) between NGS and digital PCR calls when assessing EGFR mutation status using 85 plasma samples from 82 EGFR -positive NSCLC patients. According to our data, variant allele fraction (VAF) was significantly lower in discordant calls and the median of the absolute values of all pairwise differences (MAPD) was significantly higher in discordant calls ( p < 0.001 in both cases). Based on these results, we propose a new parameter that integrates both variables, named R-score. Next, we sought to evaluate the PPA for EGFR mutation calls between two independent NGS platforms using a subset of 40 samples from the same cohort. Remarkably, there was a significant linear correlation between the PPA and the R-score (r = 0.97; p < 0.001). Specifically, the PPA of samples with an R-score ≤ -1.25 was 95.83%, whereas PPA falls to 81.63% in samples with R-score ≤ 0.25. In conclusion, R-score significantly correlates with PPA and can assist laboratory medicine specialists and data scientists to select reliable variants detected by NGS.

Several platforms for noninvasive EGFR testing are currently used in the clinical setting with sensitivities ranging from 30% to 100%. Prospective studies evaluating agreement and sources for discordant results remain lacking. Herein, seven methodologies including two next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based methods, three high-sensitivity PCR-based platforms, and two FDA-approved methods were compared using 72 plasma samples, from EGFR-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients progressing on a first-line tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI). NGS platforms as well as high-sensitivity PCR-based methodologies showed excellent agreement for EGFR-sensitizing mutations (K = 0.80-0.89) and substantial agreement for T790M testing (K = 0.77 and 0.68, respectively). Mutant allele frequencies (MAFs) obtained by different quantitative methods showed an excellent reproducibility (intraclass correlation coefficients 0.86-0.98). Among other technical factors, discordant calls mostly occurred at mutant allele frequencies (MAFs) ≤ 0.5%. Agreement significantly improved when discarding samples with MAF ≤ 0.5%. EGFR mutations were detected at significantly lower MAFs in patients with brain metastases, suggesting that these patients risk for a false-positive result. Our results support the use of liquid biopsies for noninvasive EGFR testing and highlight the need to systematically report MAFs., (© 2020 The Authors. Published by FEBS Press and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Advanced NSCLC patients harboring EML4-ALK and CCDC6-RET rearrangements derive benefit from treatment with ALK and RET TKIs but not immune checkpoint inhibitors. New immunotherapeutic approaches, such as immunization against growth factors, can be of particular interest for combination treatment in these patients. Here, we investigated the effects of anti-EGF antibodies generated by vaccination (anti-EGF VacAbs), TKIs and combinations in EML4-ALK and CCDC6-RET NSCLC cell lines. We found that EGF and tumor growth factor alpha (TGFα) significantly decreased the antiproliferative activity of the RET inhibitor BLU-667 in CCDC6-RET cells and brigatinib, alectinib and crizotinib in EML4-ALK translocated cells. The addition of anti-EGF VacAbs reversed the effects of EGF and TGFα, potentiated the antitumor effects of the kinase inhibitors and delayed the appearance in vitro of resistant clones. Western blotting demonstrated that the combination of anti-EGF VacAbs with ALK or RET TKIs effectively suppressed EGFR downstream pathways in EML4-ALK translocated and CCDC6-RET cells, respectively. In conclusion, anti-EGF VacAbs significantly increased the antitumor activity of TKIs in ALK and RET-positive cell lines. Clinical trials of an EGF vaccine in combination with ALK and RET TKIs are warranted., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Erik d'Hondt is an employee of In3Bio. The rest of the authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Personalized medicine is nowadays a paradigm in lung cancer management, offering important benefits to patients. This study aimed to test the feasibility and utility of embedding two multiplexed genomic platforms as the routine workup of advanced non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. Two parallel multiplexed approaches were performed based on DNA sequencing and direct digital detection of RNA with nCounter ® technology to evaluate gene mutations and fusions. The results were used to guide genotype-directed therapies and patient outcomes were collected. A total of 224 advanced non-squamous NSCLC patients were prospectively included in the study. Overall, 85% of samples were successfully characterized at DNA and RNA levels and oncogenic drivers were found in 68% of patients, with KRAS , EGFR , MET Δex14, BRAF , and ALK being the most frequent (31%, 19%, 5%, 4%, and 4%, respectively). Among all patients with complete genotyping results and follow-up data ( n = 156), the median overall survival (OS) was 1.90 years (confidence interval (CI) 95% 1.69-2.10) for individuals harbouring an actionable driver treated with a matched therapy, compared with 0.59 years (CI 95% 0.39-0.79) in those not eligible for any targeted therapy and 0.61 years (CI 95% 0.12-1.10) in patients with no drivers identified ( p < 0.001). Integrating DNA and RNA multiplexing technologies into the routine molecular testing of advanced NSCLC patients is feasible and useful and highlights the necessity of widespread integrating comprehensive molecular diagnosis into lung cancer care.

Background: In a significant percentage of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients, tumor tissue is unavailable or insufficient for genetic analyses at time to progression. We prospectively analyzed the appearance of genetic alterations associated with resistance in liquid biopsies of advanced NSCLC patients progressing to targeted therapies using the NGS platform., Methods: A total of 24 NSCLC patients were included in the study, 22 progressing to tyrosine kinase inhibitors and two to other treatments. Liquid biopsies samples were obtained and analyzed using the GeneRead TM QIAact Lung DNA UMI Panel, designed to enrich specific target regions and containing 550 variant positions in 19 selected genes frequently altered in lung cancer tumors. Previously, a retrospective validation of the panel was performed in clinical samples., Results: Of the 21 patients progressing to tyrosine kinase inhibitors with valid results in liquid biopsy, NGS analysis identified a potential mechanism of resistance in 12 (57%). The most common were acquired mutations in ALK and EGFR , which appeared in 8/21 patients (38%), followed by amplifications in 5/21 patients (24%), and KRAS mutations in one patient (5%). Loss of the p.T790M was also identified in two patients progressing to osimertinib. Three of the 21 (14%) patients presented two or more concomitant alterations associated with resistance. Finally, an EGFR amplification was found in the only patient progressing to immunotherapy included in the study., Conclusions: NGS analysis in liquid biopsies of patients progressing to targeted therapies using the GeneReader platform is feasible and can help the oncologist to make treatment decisions., Competing Interests: Conflicts of Interest: All authors have completed the ICMJE uniform disclosure form (available at http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/tcr.2018.10.12). The series “Targeted Therapy and Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: A New Era?” was commissioned by the editorial office without any funding or sponsorship. The authors have no other conflicts of interest to declare., (2019 Translational Cancer Research. All rights reserved.)

Background: We hypothesized that the abundance of PD1 mRNA in tumor samples might explain the differences in overall response rates (ORR) observed following anti-PD1 monotherapy across cancer types., Patients and Methods: RNASeqv2 data from 10 078 tumor samples representing 34 different cancer types was analyzed from TCGA. Eighteen immune-related gene signatures and 547 immune-related genes, including PD1, were explored. Correlations between each gene/signature and ORRs reported in the literature following anti-PD1 monotherapy were calculated. To translate the in silico findings to the clinical setting, we analyzed the expression of PD1 mRNA using the nCounter platform in 773 formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tumor samples across 17 cancer types. To test the direct relationship between PD1 mRNA, PDL1 immunohistochemistry (IHC), stromal tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (sTILs) and ORR, we evaluated an independent FFPE-based dataset of 117 patients with advanced disease treated with anti-PD1 monotherapy., Results: In pan-cancer TCGA, PD1 mRNA expression was found strongly correlated (r > 0.80) with CD8 T-cell genes and signatures and the proportion of PD1 mRNA-high tumors (80th percentile) within a given cancer type was variable (0%-84%). Strikingly, the PD1-high proportions across cancer types were found strongly correlated (r = 0.91) with the ORR following anti-PD1 monotherapy reported in the literature. Lower correlations were found with other immune-related genes/signatures, including PDL1. Using the same population-based cutoff (80th percentile), similar proportions of PD1-high disease in a given cancer type were identified in our in-house 773 tumor dataset as compared with TCGA. Finally, the pre-established PD1 mRNA FFPE-based cutoff was found significantly associated with anti-PD1 response in 117 patients with advanced disease (PD1-high 51.5%, PD1-intermediate 26.6% and PD1-low 15.0%; odds ratio between PD1-high and PD1-intermediate/low = 8.31; P < 0.001). In this same dataset, PDL1 tumor expression by IHC or percentage of sTILs was not found associated with response., Conclusions: Our study provides a clinically applicable assay that links PD1 mRNA abundance, activated CD8 T-cells and anti-PD1 efficacy.

Introduction: Mutations in EGFR correlate with impaired response to immune checkpoint inhibitors and the development of novel immunotherapeutic approaches for EGFR mutant NSCLC is of particular interest. Immunization against epidermal growth factor (EGF) has shown efficacy in a phase III trial including unselected NSCLC patients, but little was known about the mechanisms involved in the effects of the anti-EGF antibodies generated by vaccination (anti-EGF VacAbs) or their activity in tumor cells with EGFR mutations., Methods: The EGFR-mutant, NSCLC cell lines H1975, and PC9, together with several gefitinib and osimertinib-resistant cells derived from PC9, were treated with anti-EGF VacAbs and/or EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Cell viability was analyzed by proliferation assays, cell cycle by fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis, and levels of RNA and proteins by quantitative retro-transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting., Results: Anti-EGF VacAbs generated in rabbits suppressed EGF-induced cell proliferation and cycle progression and inhibited downstream EGFR signaling in EGFR-mutant cells. Sera from patients immunized with an EGF vaccine were also able to block activation of EGFR effectors. In combination, the anti-EGF VacAbs significantly enhanced the antitumor activity of all TKIs tested, suppressed Erk1/2 phosphorylation, blocked the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and downregulated the expression of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase (AXL). Finally, anti-EGF VacAbs significantly delayed the emergence in vitro of EGFR TKI resistant clones., Conclusions: EGFR-mutant patients can derive benefit from immunization against EGF, particularly if combined with EGFR TKIs. A phase I trial of an EGF vaccine in combination with afatinib has been initiated., (Copyright © 2018 International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Context: - Technologic advances have contributed to the increasing relevance of RNA analysis in clinical oncology practice. The different genetic aberrations that can be screened with RNA include gene fusions and splice variants. Validated methods of identifying these alterations include fluorescence in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and next-generation sequencing, which can provide physicians valuable information on disease and treatment of cancer patients., Objective: - To discuss the standard techniques available and new approaches for the identification of gene fusions and splice variants in cancer, focusing on RNA analysis and how analytic methods have evolved in both tissue and liquid biopsies., Data Sources: - This is a narrative review based on PubMed searches and the authors' own experiences., Conclusions: - Reliable RNA-based testing in tissue and liquid biopsies can inform the diagnostic process and guide physicians toward the best treatment options. Next-generation sequencing methodologies permit simultaneous assessment of molecular alterations and increase the number of treatment options available for cancer patients.

Competing Interests: The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.