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The process of diffusion is intimately related to random molecular displacement and is central to many problems in chemistry. Here, we provide an intuitive derivation of the diffusion equation based on the analysis of the random trajectories of particles generated and plotted by simple MATLAB and Python scripts. The codes are very simple and profusely commented on, so they can be modified by students and instructors with little experience with these software packages. The codes plot the trajectories in 1D, 2D, and 3D of a number of particles during a number of steps, both specified by the operator. Advanced versions of the codes with animated evolution of the diffusion process are also provided. The interactive generation and analysis of the trajectories of the particles in different scenarios allows a faster and more complete understanding of the effect of the number of particles, diffusion time, or dimensionality of the system, on the basic aspects of chemical diffusion, like mean square displacement, through the statistical nature of the process. A series of activities for the instructor and students was also suggested.

Industrial drug discovery teams encompass scientists from multiple specialties and require participants to communicate effectively across disciplinary boundaries. In this paper, we present an undergraduate or graduate classroom simulation of this environment. Over a series of five workshops, student teams of mixed scientific backgrounds perform five iterations of the chemistry cycle of small molecule drug discovery. Students analyze physicochemical, structural, and (fictional) assay data and use these to design new compounds for testing. Simulated assay results are returned to students who use the information in the design of subsequent compounds. After workshop 5, each team selects a single lead compound, supported by a potential synthetic route, a portfolio of assay data, and logical scientific decision-making. Our exercise provides students with opportunities for hands-on student-responsive data handing, team-building, and technical knowledge acquisition--all within an industrially relevant scientific scenario.

Molecules and Computer: Chemistry Calculations in Class (MC[superscript 4]) is a computational laboratory intended for final-year high school or undergraduate students. The topic is the antioxidant potential of anthocyanidins, which is chemically related to their radical scavenging action via the mechanism of hydrogen atom transfer (HAT). This laboratory combines (bio)chemical and nutraceutical concepts with organic chemical reactions involving radical species. It allows students to apply important physicochemical (thermodynamic) concepts, such as Gibbs free energy of reaction and solvation. Finally, the procedure can easily be tailored to the resources at hand as well as the knowledge of the students. In fact, when computing facilities are not available, the whole set of molecular structures and energy data are provided as well as a simple datasheet required for their analysis. Alternatively, the whole protocol and useful scripts are provided so that students can generate their own results by experiencing the approach to computational chemistry.

The rise of virtual and online education in recent years has led to the development and popularization of many online tools, notably three-dimensional (3D) models and augmented reality (AR), for visualizing various structures in chemical sciences. The majority of the developed tools focus on either small molecules or biological systems, as information regarding their structure can be easily accessed from online databases or obtained through relatively quick calculations. As such, due to a lack of crystallographic and theoretical data available for nonbiological macromolecules, there is a noticeable lack of accessible online tools for the visualization of polymers in 3D. Herein, using a few sample polymers, we showcase a workflow for the generation of 3D models using molecular dynamics and Blender. The 3D structures can then be hosted on p3d.in, where AR models can be generated automatically. Furthermore, the hosted 3D models can then be shared via quick response (QR) codes and used in various settings without the need to download any applications.

The basics of organic chemistry nomenclature were introduced in a laboratory organized in a nonformal environment such as a science festival. The laboratory, divided into three distinct but interconnected activities, was aimed not only at secondary school students but also at lay people. The intent was to explain the importance of associating a name to a molecular structure and conversely and that this is relevant not only for scientists but also in everyday life in order to better understand the properties of commonly used molecules. The overall goal was to stimulate interest in chemical topics with the aid of fun and engaging activities.

The focus of the present study is the learning processes of concepts related to hydrogen bonds, which were developed using a didactic sequence (DS). Based on the perspective of Imre Lakatos, it was observed whether the explanatory models created by upper-secondary students form progressive transition sequences, which are similar to what Lakatos, in his text The History of Science, calls a "problem" that increases the explanatory/heuristic power of the model. To evaluate the evolution of these models, which generally consist of progressive transitions, four phases were developed: (1) the categorization of answers obtained in the DS in Realist, Empiricist or Rationalist zones, as well as an attribution of scores; (2) the determination of a score range for said zones; (3) hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and (4) an analysis of the progressive transition of the explanatory models. A continuous review of the ideas expressed by the students during their learning of the subject revealed that a significant share of students progressed conceptually. In a general way, it can be said that the activities developed in the DS contributed substantially to the progressive transition of the explanatory models made by most students. Furthermore, the approach of the DS toward the subject of hydrogen bonds allowed the students to interpret the phenomena studied using their knowledge of Chemistry.

Being able to move between different representations levels (macroscopic, submicroscopic, and symbolic) is important to understand a chemical phenomenon meaningfully. The current study investigated how pre-service science teachers moved from symbolic representation to sub-microscopic representation. A total of 205 pre-service science teachers, first, balanced the three chemical reactions and then drew the reactions' sub-microscopic views if they were able to observe them. The findings revealed that pre-service science teachers are most successful at the symbolic level. Yet, this is not a valid conclusion for the sub-microscopic representation level. The drawings were analyzed concerning atomic size and molecular geometry and found that pre-service science teachers have common alternative concepts. Furthermore, they mostly have a superficial knowledge of the molecular geometry of chemical compounds. In conclusion, because preservice science teachers will teach in their future careers, it is important to encourage them to comprehend chemical phenomena at each representation level and shift between them to prevent alternative concepts they may have.

Students perceive molecular bonding as an abstract concept; therefore, learning this concept seems uninteresting and difficult. A strategically designed learning object (LO), such as in the form of a simulation, can be used to help students acquire accurate mental images and build appropriate schema in addition to providing a concrete learning experience and encouraging knowledge construction. This paper presents an evaluation of the design and development of the "Making Molecules" simulation through students' perceptions of the previous version and recommendations for improving a future version. Data were collected from two online chemistry courses (N = 159) through an anonymous online survey. Results suggest that students responded positively to the use of the simulation. They reported gaining a better understanding of molecular bonding through an interactive learning experience. One of their recommendations was to include more learning tasks related to complex molecules, expressing an interest in learning more about chemistry. This paper provides insights for educators and instructional designers regarding selection and/or design of an LO for optimizing student learning of complex topics.

The rapid onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, has brought to light how important technology may be to the socio-economic development of a nation, particularly in Africa. The study conducted a narrative review of pertinent literature to objectively assess the effects of two types of emerging digital technologies (Artificial Intelligence [AI]) and nanotechnologies in Africa. The results showed that emerging technology-related research, development, and deployment are happening throughout Africa. Nanotechnology and AI have had a substantial impact in many spheres of African economies. The study, however, acknowledges in its conclusion that not all African nations have derived the same benefits from emerging technologies, including the digitalisation processes. There are still large disparities in the accessibility of technology and digital skills in several rural and underdeveloped areas in Africa. Thus, recommendations on how to close these gaps are provided for all African countries to profit more consistently from the emerging technologies and the digitalisation processes.

The biology education literature includes compelling assertions that unfamiliar problems are especially useful for revealing students' true understanding of biology. However, there is only limited evidence that such novel problems have different cognitive requirements than more familiar problems. Here, we sought additional evidence by using chatbots based on large language models as models of biology students. For human physiology and cell biology, we developed sets of realistic and hypothetical problems matched to the same lesson learning objectives (LLOs). Problems were considered hypothetical if (i) known biological entities (molecules and organs) were given atypical or counterfactual properties (redefinition) or (ii) fictitious biological entities were introduced (invention). Several chatbots scored significantly worse on hypothetical problems than on realistic problems, with scores declining by an average of 13%. Among hypothetical questions, redefinition questions appeared especially difficult, with many chatbots scoring as if guessing randomly. These results suggest that, for a given LLO, hypothetical problems may have different cognitive demands than realistic problems and may more accurately reveal students' ability to apply biology core concepts to diverse contexts. The Test Question Templates (TQT) framework, which explicitly connects LLOs with examples of assessment questions, can help educators generate problems that are challenging (due to their novelty), yet fair (due to their alignment with pre-specified LLOs). Finally, ChatGPT's rapid improvement toward expert-level answers suggests that future educators cannot reasonably expect to ignore or outwit chatbots but must do what we can to make assessments fair and equitable.

Students need a strong understanding of how to represent chemical compounds in order to succeed in organic chemistry. This project set out to gain a better understanding of students' difficulties with symbolic representations, by identifying the specific errors associated with drawing wedge-dash structures. The focus was on how students transformed a condensed formula into a wedge-dash structure. The types of errors were coded and analyzed to determine the proportion of students making each type of error between the quiz, exam and final. These errors were connected to the skill of information processing to determine which category of information processing had the most improvement.

Nanoscience and Technology (NST) have revolutionized the world. It has led to many innovations since it entered our lives. Meanwhile, the number and quality of people trained in this field gained importance. Currently, initiatives are being taken to integrate this field into the primary education curriculum in many countries. This study focuses on integrating NST into the curriculum as a primary education topic. In this context, meta-synthesis research was used. First, developed countries' well-known initiatives on adapting NST to the curriculum will be discussed in the paper. Then, the works on NST in the literature, especially experimental ones, will be addressed. Finally, based on the results, some suggestions will be made for creating a curriculum in this field. Although there are differences in countries' curriculums, the basic knowledge necessary for education in this field is also outlined.

The range of abstract concepts encountered when learning chemistry and the inability of students to make connections between the macroscopic, sub-microscopic, and symbolic representations, used in chemistry teaching, are believed to be the main reasons for students' difficulty when learning chemistry. Prediction and determination of molecular geometry using the theory of valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) is a sample of the abstract concept that is hard to understand by students who learn chemistry. Students may comprehend these ideas better if the learning process is supplemented with cutting-edge, interactive learning aids. To address the conceptual difficulties that students encounter when learning how to predict the shapes of molecules, a card game (MGCards) has been developed which is supported by simple molecular model building (MMB). The card game allows students to work through the steps required to predict the shape of a molecule in an engaging format. The student learning process is supported by feedback at all stages (if students make a mistake, they receive hints that will help them in the next step of the game). Action research with qualitative methods has been used to design, develop, and evaluate the MGCards. The MGCards and MMB were piloted at the University of Leicester with year one Natural Sciences students and modified based on the feedback received. Both MGCards and MMB were then used as part of the first-year chemistry education programme at Tanjungpura University in Indonesia. The findings of students' answer analysis (pre- and post-test) in both cycles showed that students had a better understanding after learning with MGCards and MMB. The positive feedback for MGCards and MMB confirmed that these resources were effective in delivering an engaging learning experience. The results suggest that MGCards and MMB play a significant role in enhancing students' understanding while also keeping them engaged.

Anaerobic digestion is a complex biochemical process that is represented by the stoichiometric Buswell's equation. Buswell's equation is the study of the interface among biochemistry, mathematics, and chemistry. Students often have difficulty in understanding the nature of biochemical stoichiometry. Buswell's equation is significant for the calculation of the quantity of biomethane. Although the general formula CxHyOz of organic pure substance or mixture has been well studied, the Buswell's equation for biomolecules containing phosphorous has rarely been explored. The aim of this article is to study the nature of Buswell's equation using the H-atom method. The new general Buswell's equation, which contains phosphorous, is deduced from the H-atom and algebraic methods.

Representations in chemistry are the tools by which students, instructors, and chemists reason with chemical concepts that are abstract. Although representations are regularly used within the chemistry classroom, there is more to uncover regarding the ways students interact with representations when given chemistry tasks. This study aimed to address this gap in knowledge. In this study, eighteen students enrolled in second semester general chemistry were recruited for data collection. Semi-structured interviews were utilized to observe how students approached a similar set of dipole-dipole interaction tasks when given four distinct representations. Analysis of the data revealed that students' approaches to these tasks were affected by the newly explicit features present within each representation. Additionally, the ordering in which the representations were presented to the students influenced the specific features students took notice of and implemented into their approaches to the tasks. These findings can better inform instruction and future research involving chemical representations such that students will form a solid foundation in working with and pulling relevant information from various representations when solving chemistry tasks.

Appealing to students' affect in academic settings, such as demonstrating chemistry's relevance to their life, is one strategy instructors may use to support students' in learning. This study investigates the types of connections that students make to organic chemistry when responding to an open-ended writing assignment. Students enrolled in an introductory level organic chemistry course were asked to choose and write about an organic molecule they felt was important to their life, in doing so students wrote about the molecule's relevance to their life. Analysis of the writing was supported by semi-structured interviews with a subset of the students in which they discussed their approach to completing the assigment. Conclusions from this study suggest that students successfully made connections between their chosen molecule and their life. Considered through the lens of relevance, students can both seek and find relevance in organic chemistry topics on a personal, societal, or vocational level; and therefore may reinforce their comprehension and appreciation of chemistry.

Central to conceptual understanding of STEM disciplines is visuospatial processing. Despite its acknowledged role in assuring learners' success, less is known about the underlying reasoning students must employ when solving 3-D problems and the ways in which gaining an understanding of this can inform formative assessment and learning in STEM education. Chemists must utilise their spatial understanding when visualising 3-D structures and processes from 2-D representations and so this exploratory practitioner-researcher study sought to identify the ways in which secondary school chemistry students reason when explaining their predictions about molecular geometry, and how the use of certain modalities was linked to assessed accuracy. Coding of students' verbal and written responses to the research task revealed that students employed multiple reasoning strategies and conceptual resources to facilitate use of analytical heuristics and imagistic reasoning. Analysis of students' verbal responses and spontaneous gestures provided insight into the extent of imagistic vs. analytical reasoning and the finergrained conditions which promoted their use. Importantly, it was observed that despite being instructed on the use of VSEPR theory to find analytical solutions, some students exhibited preference for alternative reasoning strategies drawing upon imagistic reasoning; showing more nuanced and varying degrees of accuracy through their verbal responses and representations gestured in 3D space. This work has pedagogical implications as use of specific reasoning strategies and the identification of key conceptual resources is not readily promoted as classroom practice for learning or assessment. This study therefore raises questions and contributes to the evidence base for attending to learners' visuospatial thinking, as revealed through the multiple modalities they may use to assist and communicate their understanding, and highlights the significance of this to formative assessment in Chemistry and STEM Education.

Education in organic chemistry is highly reliant on molecular representations. Students abstract information from representations to make sense of submicroscopic interactions. This study investigates relationships between differing representations: bond-line structures, ball-and-stick, or electrostatic potential maps (EPMs), and predicting partial charges, nucleophiles, and electrophiles. The study makes use of students' answers in hot-spot question format, where they select partially charged atoms on the image of a molecule and explanations. Analysis showed no significant difference among students when predicting a partially positive atom with each representation; however, more students with EPMs were able to correctly predict the partially negative atom. No difference was observed across representations in students predicting electrophilic character; while representations did influence students identifying nucleophilic character. The affordance of EPMs was that they cued more students to cite relative electronegativity indicating that such students were able to recognize the cause for electron rich/poor areas. This recognition is central to rationalizing mechanisms in organic chemistry. This study offers implications on incorporating EPMs during instruction and provides evidence-based support in how EPMs could be useful in promoting learning on topics that relate to an uneven charge distribution.

Asking students to explain why phenomena occur at a molecular level is vital to increasing their understanding of chemistry concepts. One way to elicit students' mechanistic reasoning and guide construction of knowledge is through Writing-to-Learn (WTL), which is a promising approach for students in organic chemistry courses. In the design of WTL assignments, rhetorical aspects provide an authentic context by designating a role, genre, and audience for students. This context can support students' learning, but, if the rhetorical aspects misalign with the learning objectives of the assignment, they can hinder students' ability to achieve these objectives. In this project, we designed a WTL assignment about a base-free Wittig reaction, which we implemented in an organic chemistry laboratory course. Here, we explore how changes in the rhetorical aspects of this assignment can influence the way students explain two different comparisons of reaction mechanisms. We consider how students use explicit and implicit properties and how the use of these features compares within the context of the reaction. Results indicate that, when the rhetorical aspects align with the learning objectives of the assignment, students provide more productive elaborations that use both explicit and implicit properties. This is supported by both the analysis of students' writing and students' feedback about the assignments.

Genetics is a subject that is quite difficult according to students. Various strategies and methods are used to understand genetics in learning to have genetic literacy. One way of increasing genetic literacy in students is to apply genetic problems based on an online discussion in genetics lectures. The research was conducted to determine the effect of genetic problem-based online discussion on increasing students' genetic literacy. The research design used a pre-posttest control group design. It was carried out experimentally on three treatment groups: the genetic problem base of students, the genetic problem base of educators--students, and the genetic problem base of educators. According to the genetic literacy domain, genetic literacy is measured through multiple-choice tests, including genetic models, meiotic models, and molecular models. Manova analyzed the value of gene literacy, and a post-doc further test was performed to differentiate genetic literacy in the three treatment groups. The results showed that genetic literacy increased in all treatment groups, with the highest increase in the group that applied a genetic problem base focused on student problems.

The study diagnosed chemistry teacher trainees' difficulties in naming and writing structures of spiro and bicyclic compounds. The case study design was conducted in a constructivist environment to enhance chemistry teacher trainees' ability to construct, represent, and interpret the structural formulae of spiro and bicyclic compounds. Purposive sampling technique was employed to select 126 1st-year chemistry teacher trainees from University of Education, Winneba for the study. The results revealed that chemistry teacher trainees had difficulties in naming and writing structural formulae of spiro and bicyclic compounds. However, through the effective use of molecular model kits in teaching naming and writing structures of spiro and bicyclic compounds, these chemistry teacher trainees became conscious of IUPAC rules for naming and writing spiro and other cyclic compounds. At-test conducted indicated that a statistical significance difference existed between students' performance before the implementation of the intervention and after the intervention. It is recommended that chemistry teachers should adopt the use of molecular model kits in teaching concepts of organic nomenclature.

Analogies and modelling have been developed and applied in learning and teaching science to facilitate students' understanding of abstract concepts, such as atomic structure. Considering few studies focus on comparing the effects of two teaching strategies--analogy-based teaching (ABT) and modelling-based teaching (MBT)--this study aims to compare the effects of ABT and MBT on high school students' content understanding and transferability of atomic concepts in science. Implementing a quasi-experimental design with pre-post-delayed tests, the study compared learning outcomes achieved by the MBT group (N = 68) and the ABT group (N = 69). The results showed both MBT and ABT could improve students' content understanding and promote transferability. However, the MBT group significantly outperformed the ABT group in terms of generating initial models and overall transferability. Although there was no difference in content understanding, or near or far transferability, at post-test between the two groups, the MBT group maintained more extended memory of atomic structure on the delayed post-test. Moreover, qualitative analysis of students' drawings of atomic models revealed that both groups were able to develop and transfer their models, but inadequate scientific knowledge affected the quality of the transfer product. These findings have implications for designing and implementing instructional approaches that leverage analogy and modelling in the science class.

The concept of hybridisation is one of the most difficult concepts for chemistry students to grasp at all levels of learning. Research showed the students conceptual difficulty ranged from their lack of the prerequisite knowledge for grasping the topic hybridisation to chemical bond formation and orientations of atomic orbitals. This study investigated the difficulties Senior High School Students face in learning hybridisation. The study adopted a mixed-method approach using the sequential exploratory design. Purposive sampling was used to select six schools that offer elective chemistry subject. Simple random sampling was then used to select 120 Senior High School form 1 students to take part in the study. Convenient sampling was used to interview 24 students from the sample. Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT) and Semi-structured interviews were self-constructed and used to collect data. Descriptive statistics and Content analysis were used to analyse the data. Results showed that, majority of students had difficulties in explaining the concept of hybrid orbitals, writing the electron configuration of [subscript 6]C, explaining the effect of hybridisation on formation of chemical bonds in [subscript 6]C, and type of hybridisation and shapes of compounds such as NH[subscript 3], OF[subscript 2], BCl[subscript 3], CO[subscript 2], SiO[subscript 2], C[subscript 2]H[subscript 2], BeF[subscript 2] and C[subscript 2]H[subscript 4]. The study also showed that students had difficulties in explaining and demonstrating the formation of C = C double bond in ethene and other compounds. Equally students were challenged in demonstrating the differences between the formation of sigma and pi bonds in compounds. Students had difficulties in using electron orbital diagrams to explain the shape of CO[subscript 2] as linear. The study concluded that Senior High School form 1 chemistry students in the Upper West Region of Ghana lacked the most basic and fundamental concept of hybridisation. Teachers need to use conceptual change instructional approaches to teach hybridisation in order to foster students' understanding and reduce misconceptions.

This study was conducted to determine the differences in the conceptual understanding of 52 Turkish students who were taught with a scientific argumentation approach in grade 12 chemistry. The concept test was administered to the participants as a pre-test and post-test, and it contained two questions. The first had two sub-questions had two steps. The second had six sub-questions. The researcher of the current study, who was well-versed in chemistry education, and a chemistry teacher, expressed their views regarding the content validity of the concept test. The criteria scales and scoring rubrics were prepared by the researcher to evaluate the test in terms of a conceptual understanding of hydrogen bonding. This study, which thoroughly aims at learning the effects of scaffolding with argumentation, applied mixed-methods research to reveal students' understanding of hydrogen forces and to determine schemas by drawing. In quantitative analysis, the mean, median, and standard deviation values of the data collected from the students were considered. In qualitative analysis, the drawings and explanations of the students on the concept tests applied before and after the education were discussed. According to the results of the concept tests, improvement in the conceptual understanding of the students before and after the argumentation-based teaching could be observed; however, half of the students still evidently had a rote understanding. In conclusion, the scientific-argumentation-based teaching approach was effective in developing their conceptual understanding. Recommendations are made as a result of this study.

A deep understanding of organic chemistry requires a learner to understand many concepts and have fluency with multiple skills. This understanding is particularly necessary for constructing and using mechanisms to explain chemical reactions. Electrophilicity and nucleophilicity are two fundamental concepts to learning and understanding reaction mechanisms. Prior research suggests that learners focus heavily on explicit structural features ("e.g.," formal charge) rather than implicit features ("e.g.," an open p-orbital) when identifying and describing the role of electrophiles and nucleophiles in reaction mechanisms; however, these findings come from small-scale, interview-based investigations with a limited number of reaction mechanisms. The work reported herein seeks to further explore the meaning learners ascribe to electrophiles and nucleophiles by evaluating 19 936 written explanations from constructed-response items asking "what" is happening in reaction mechanisms and "why" it happens for 85 unique reaction mechanisms across a yearlong postsecondary organic chemistry course. To analyze these data, we developed an electrophile rubric to capture learners' level of explanation sophistication ("Absent," "Descriptive," "Foundational," and "Complex"); this electrophile rubric is complementary to a nucleophile rubric previously reported in the literature. Our data show proportional levels of explanation sophistication for electrophiles and nucleophiles ([tau][subscript b] = 0.402) across these written explanations of reaction mechanisms. We note that learners' explanations of nucleophiles tend to be at a higher level than their explanations of electrophiles. While this finding does support prior literature reports, we also found that explanations of mechanisms involving reductions of pi-bonds ("e.g.," carbonyls) tended to be more sophisticated for electrophiles than for nucleophiles. Overall, our results support the claim that learners are able to discuss both electrophilicity and nucleophilicity; however, learners discuss electrophilicity and nucleophilicity at different levels of sophistication where nucleophilicity predominates for most reaction types.

In recent years, chemistry educators are increasingly adopting immersive virtual reality (IVR) technology to help learners visualise molecular interactions. However, educational studies on IVR mostly investigated its usability and user perceptions leaving out its impact on improving conceptual understanding. If they evaluated students' knowledge gains, they tended to use information recall tests to assess knowledge gains. Employing interviews and diagram-drawing tasks, this study explored how students' conceptual understanding of the nature of hydrogen bonds and the shape of snowflakes changed through a collaborative IVR experience on snowflakes. Participants were 68 undergraduate chemistry students. Videos of pre-/post-interviews and student-generated diagrams were analysed. The results indicated a marked improvement in students' conceptual understanding of the nature of hydrogen bonds among water molecules in snowflakes. After IVR, 57 students provided scientifically acceptable explanations of the nature of hydrogen bonds. Improvements in students' understanding were related to the intermolecular nature of hydrogen bonds, the role of lone pairs of electrons in forming hydrogen bonds, and molecular interactions in 3D space. This study suggests that collaborative IVR could be a powerful way for students to visualise molecular interactions, examine their alternative conceptions, and build more coherent understanding. Implications for the design and implementation of IVR activities for science learning are discussed.

Recent studies have reported a growing trend of using student-generated diagrams for assessment in science teaching and research. However, many educators tend to use diagrams to explore students' perceptions of scientists and their work rather than explore conceptual understanding of abstract concepts. In this study, we used diagrams to investigate students' conceptual understanding of the nature of hydrogen bonds among water molecules in snowflakes. Participants were 70 first- and second-year university students. Following a sequence of interview prompts, the students drew diagrams to illustrate the interactions amongst water molecules in snowflakes. Sixty students' diagrams were analyzed inductively using a constant comparison method. Most diagrams showed that the students did not have major challenges drawing the water molecule structure, recognizing polarity of a water molecule, or recognizing the intermolecular nature of hydrogen bonds. However, the diagrams revealed varied ways in which students conceptualized the formation of hydrogen bonds. A third of the diagrams revealed students' alternative conceptions about the role of lone pairs of electrons in the formation of hydrogen bonds. Most diagrams which showed a good understanding of the nature of a hydrogen bond revealed students' difficulties in recognizing molecular interactions in a 3D space. Our findings suggest that student-generated diagrams can provide a powerful way to understand students' conceptions of abstract science concepts.

The present investigation aims to analyze the knowledge levels and chemical representation levels of pre-service primary school teachers (PPSTs) on the experiment of distillation. For this purpose, the cross-sectional survey technique, one of the quantitative research designs was employed. The study was carried out at a Faculty of Education in the Aegean Region of Turkey with 79 freshman pre-service teachers enrolled in the Department of Primary Education. This group is of particular interest as they are the last class who had taken the General Chemistry course since this course was removed from the curriculum in 2018. A Distillation Experiment Worksheet (DEW), which consisted of 9 open-ended questions involving the macroscopic, sub-microscopic, and symbolic representations was used as data collection instrument in the study. The worksheets were analyzed with the document analysis method according to the categories created within the scope of the chemical representation levels, and these categories were established in line with direct statements of the PPSTs. Results indicated that PPSTs confused the heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures, physical properties such as volatility and density, and they were unable to differentiate between boiling and evaporation. The most crucial result of the study was that the PPSTs had difficulties in establishing a relationship between macroscopic and sub-microscopic representations. For this reason, they could not demonstrate the interactions between solvent and solute molecules at the submicroscopic level during molecular dissolution and they could not predict how the intermolecular interaction changes during the condensation and the distance between the particles. Based on the results of this analysis, our study provides several recommendations for lecturers in the last part of this paper.

Collaboration is regarded as one of the core competences of the 21st century when it comes to complex problem solving. In response to high dropout rates among STEM students, we developed a digital-collaborative intervention on a difficult topic, MO theory, for first-year chemistry students. First, students work independently in a Digital Learning Environment (DLE). Afterwards, they collaborate in small groups and create Concept Maps on MO theory. We evaluate this intervention through knowledge tests, tests of attractiveness, cognitive load, and usability during the DLE and concept mapping process, as well as audio and screen recordings during the collaborative group processes. This paper presents the detailed study design together with results from a first study in January 2021, focusing on the practicability of the intervention and students' feedback. Overall, each small group succeeded in creating a Concept Map. Students rated all phases of the intervention as attractive, with high usability and low cognitive load, although the interactive videos scored better for attractiveness and usability than the concept mapping process. On that basis, first adjustments for a second cycle of the intervention, which will be conducted in January 2022, were derived.

Understanding chemical models can be challenging for many university students studying chemistry. This study analysed students' understanding of molecular structures using the Lewis structure as a model, and examined what hinders their understanding. We conducted pre- and post-tests to analyse students' conceptions and changes in them. The measures contained multiple-choice questions and drawing tasks testing their understanding of concepts, such as polarity, geometry, charge or formal charge and expanded octet. The pre-test revealed a lack of knowledge and several misconceptions in students' prior knowledge. For example, the concept of polarity was well-known, but the combination of polarity and geometry appeared to be difficult. For some students, the representation of molecules was intuitive and lacking a systematic approach. Certain students used mnemonics and draw ball-and-stick models connected to surficial representations. After the chemistry courses, the conceptions and drawings had generally changed, and the level of the students' knowledge increased markedly. Although, fewer ball-and-stick models were drawn in the post-test, some students still used them. The main result was that students who drew ball-and-stick models in the pre-test were less capable of drawing the correct Lewis structures with electrons in the post-test. In addition, heuristics seem to hinder learning and some concepts, such as resonance, remained difficult. This is probably due to the fact that understanding molecular structures requires systemic understanding, where several matters must be understood at the same time. Our study highlights that the understanding of molecular structures requires conceptual change related to several sub-concepts.

The purpose of the study is to determine the knowledge and awareness of gifted children receiving education in the Science and Art Center on nanotechnology. The descriptive survey model was used in the study. The purposeful sampling method was chosen and a total of 160 students receiving education in two Science and Art Centers located in the city of Antalya in the 2018-2019 academic year were included in the study. The students consisted of 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th-grade students. The study tested whether the nanotechnology knowledge levels of gifted students differ according to the variables of students 'gender, grade level, knowledge source, parents' education level, and occupation. According to the findings, while the students' knowledge and awareness of nanotechnology did not create a significant difference in terms of the gender variable, it was determined that as the grade level increased, the knowledge and awareness level also increased. Also, it was determined that as the parents' education level increased, the students' knowledge on nanotechnology increased and that the knowledge and awareness of students whose parents are engineers or doctors were higher compared to the other students.

Students often have difficulty understanding abstract concepts in chemistry and a low spatial ability, especially in visualizing intermolecular interactions at the submicroscopic level. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the spatial ability of students by using a 3D virtual representation as they study the curriculum topic of molecular geometry. The research was conducted with 13 male and 23 female year 10 secondary students in Jakarta, Indonesia. A qualitative methodology was employed to analyze students' spatial abilities while they undertook learning activities using 3D virtual representation. Data collection included a spatial assessment, a quiz about prior knowledge, student worksheets, interviews, observation sheets, reflective journals, and a molecular geometry test. Learning was carried out in three stages; engage, explore, and explain. The results of the research show that students' ability in spatial orientation is low whereas their ability in spatial relationships that involve using mental manipulation and rotation of 2D or 3D objects is more developed. Students employ this approach to develop their understanding of molecular geometry.

This study aims to develop a measurement tool to measure pre-service science fields teachers' (PSSFT') attitudes towards nanotechnology. For this purpose, a five-point Likert-type scale consisting of 55 items was applied to 373 PSSFT who enrolled in science fields (Science, Chemistry, Biology, Physics) at the grades 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th at a public university in Turkey. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) determined that the scale had a 3-factor structure consisting of 24 items and the factors explained 55.854% of the attitude variable's total variance. Verification of the model was tested by applying confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The CFA data were obtained from 770 PSSFT enrolled in science fields at the grades 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th at two different public universities in Turkey. The results obtained from CFA were in agreement with the model obtained by EFA. Cronbach's alpha (Cr-[alpha]) reliability of the scale was calculated to be 0.926. Findings from the validity and reliability analyses show that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool that can measure PSSFT' attitudes towards nanotechnology.

Research has shown that spatial ability plays a key role in understanding STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) content, including chemistry. Conservation of Matter (CoM) is an essential but challenging topic for chemistry students of all ages to grasp; it is often taught in a way where students memorize it but do not learn what it means conceptually. This research explored the relationship between understanding spatial ability and conceptual understanding of CoM in middle school students. CoM was examined in two ways using the Conservation of Matter Assessment (CoMA): through questions on conservation of atoms and the conservation of mass. Spatial ability was measured using the Purdue Spatial Visual Test: Rotations (PSVT). Significant, moderate correlations were found between spatial ability and understanding of CoM prior to and after a chemistry unit including instruction on CoM; the correlation was stronger after instruction. Scores on the PSVT and CoMA significantly increased pre to post instruction. The data show spatial ability may impact students' understanding of CoM, which contributes to the literature on factors that impact students' understanding of chemistry. Additionally, it provides evidence that teachers should consider including spatially rich experiences in their chemistry classroom, such as making explicit connections between the areas of Johnstone's Triad.

This study investigates students' cognitive resources for identifying symmetry elements using survey data collected from 39 inorganic chemistry students from twelve undergraduate inorganic classes at universities across the United States. We propose a framework that leverages students' knowledge of symmetry elements as a manifold of cognitive resources that can be productive or unproductive in certain contexts. This cognitive resources framework was paired with an asset-based perspective to advance work in this area beyond a deficit-framed study of ''correctness''. Herein, we present findings from a qualitative analysis of the rotation and reflection symmetry elements activated for students by four select molecules. Each molecule was presented in two different static orientations to determine the impact of orientation on students' cognitive resource activation. Our findings suggest that the orientation of static molecular images impacts the types of resources activated for students. Additionally, this study serves as an example for how to advance assessment of this topic beyond a binary approach (i.e. correct or incorrect).

Concept mapping remains widely used in education. However, little is known about how self-constructed concept maps and peer feedback can improve student learning outcomes in chemistry. We investigated the effects of peer feedback on concept mapping and how it improves students' learning performance in a large second-semester, introductory chemistry course. Three hundred and twenty students were randomly assigned to one of two concept mapping conditions: self-constructed concept map with peer feedback and self-constructed concept map without peer feedback. Each group constructed concept maps that depicted the relationship between concepts on the topic of intermolecular force. The results showed that students in the self-constructed concept map with peer feedback condition outperformed students in the no peer feedback condition in chemistry learning outcome. Overall, this study demonstrates that peer feedback enhances the effectiveness of learning with generative concept maps. The implications and future directions are discussed.

Recent progress in elucidating chemical reactions allows to explain chemistry by the potential energy of the involved chemical structures. Nevertheless, from an educational point of view, empirical results indicate that students often do not connect the core idea of energy with other chemical concepts. From a resource-oriented perspective, students do not draw on a coherent concept of chemistry to solve a problem but rather activate diverse cognitive resources, crucially depending on the context. It is thus of interest which resources high school students activate to reflect on energetic aspects of a chemical reaction. In this study, 38 German high school students in 16 focus groups were asked to explain kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine. The unguided focus group phase and the following semistructured qualitative interview were analysed by qualitative content analysis. Results show that students have a diverse network of cognitive resources on energetic aspects. However, this network's structure seems to be dominated by terminology and a few prominent ideas such as activation energy. In contrast, students seldom drew connections between bond-making and energy release. Many students mainly argued on a macroscopic level and relied heavily on technical terms. If they argued on the sub-microscopic scale, however, they often focussed on the whole system rather than on specific molecules and their structure. Hence, students interpreted concepts like activation energy or reaction coordinate diagrams on the system level leading to unproductive reasoning. Overall, it seems that students seldom activate resources on molecular structures to argue about energetic changes in chemical reactions. Also, they rarely refer to the fundamental principle of energy minimisation to reason about the driving force of reactions. These results suggest that chemical reactions should be explained already in high schools on a molecular level providing a more explicit reference to energy as a function of chemical structures.

Australia-wide consensus was reached on seven core concepts of physiology. The "movement of substances" core concept with the descriptor "the movement of substances (ions or molecules) is a fundamental process that occurs at all levels of organization in the organism" was unpacked by a team of three Australian physiology educators from the Delphi Task Force into hierarchical levels. There were 10 themes and 23 subthemes arranged in a hierarchy, some 3 levels deep. Using a 5-point Likert scale, the unpacked core concept was then rated for level of importance for students to understand (ranging from 1 = Essential to 5 = Not Important) and level of difficulty for students (ranging from 1 = Very Difficult to 5 = Not Difficult) by the 23 physiology educators from different Australian universities, all with a broad range of teaching and curriculum experience. Survey data were analyzed using a one-way ANOVA to compare between and within concept themes. The main themes all were rated on average as important. There was a wide range of difficulty ratings and more variation for this concept compared with the other core concepts. This may in part be due to the physical forces such as gravity, electrochemistry, resistance, and thermodynamics that underpin this concept, which in themselves are inherently complex. Separation of concepts into subthemes can help prioritize learning activities and time spent on difficult concepts. Embedding of core concepts across curricula will allow commonality and consistency between programs of study and inform learning outcomes, assessment, and teaching and learning activities.

The purpose of this research was to develop a multi-representation based e-book on the concept of intermolecular forces that is valid and feasible for use. The form of research used was Research and Development (R&D), which refers to the ADDIE development model consisting of five stages, namely analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. Data collection tools at the analysis stage were broken down to interview guidelines and observation sheets. At the development stage, the data collection tools used were content validation sheets (Content Validity) and views (Face Validity). At the implementation stage, the data collection tool utilized was an test of understanding on the concept of intermolecular forces. The results of content validation indicated that the developed e-book was valid. The face validity results showed that the correspondents were in agreement that the e-book had writing style and fonts that were easy to read, material explanations and videos that were easy to understand and images that were corresponding to the contents of the material. Overall, the ebook was found to be easily utilised and the material related to daily life. The ebook obtained learning outcomes that were to be highly mastered by the students.

Most junior high school students considered chemistry as a complicated science subject with an abstract concept, symbols, and terms that must be memorized. The difficulty of learning chemistry made students had low positive perceptions of chemistry. It was needed the right ways to introduce chemistry to them. The purpose of the multiple case study was to explore chemistry multimedia could help students understood chemistry and created a good impression. The study was conducted in three 7th grade classes in different schools. Classroom observations were done in four meetings to collect students' responses toward this multimedia by ending students filling out a questionnaire of impression. Test of classification of matter and its change was given in the last meeting to investigate the level of students' understanding. In the way to gain more depth information, two students from each class were an interview about the application of multimedia. The chemistry multimedia made it easier for the teacher to introduce chemistry through a podcast, molymod-like, and digital simulation. This study documented that the appearance of this multimedia could make the students attracted and curious about chemistry.

In previous published articles, formulae-based mnemonics by counting the total number of s bonds with a lone pair of electrons (LP), a localized negative charge (LNC), or a localized lone pair of electrons (LLP) and subtracting one (01) from this total value (TSLP, TSLNC, or TSLLP) to predict the power of the hybridization state of simple molecules or ions and organic compounds, including heterocyclic compounds have been discussed. These are the innovative and time-efficient methods of enhancing student interest. Here, in this new article, the limitations of conventional formulae in comparison to the use of innovative formulae have been discussed along with the application of the hybridization state in different fields of chemical education. This article encourages students to solve multiple choice type questions (MCQs) at different competitive examinations in a time economic ground on the prediction of hybridization state of simple molecules or ions to know their normal and subnormal geometry and prediction of hybridization state of hetero atom in different heterocyclic compounds to know the planarity of the compounds, which is very essential factor for prediction of aromaticity of heterocyclic compounds. Educators can use this comparative study in their classroom lectures to make chemistry authentic and intriguing. Because the use of mnemonics in classroom lectures is an essential tool to become a distinguished educator.

The aim of this study is to examine the effects of computer-based analogy (CBA) used in science teaching in terms of the unit of Structure and Properties of Matter on seventh-grade students' academic success. The attitudes of students against science teaching lesson were also described in this study. This study was applied to 60 seventh-grade students from two different classes of the same teacher from a public school in Köprübasi/Trabzon. In the study, pre-test -- post-test control group quasi-experimental research model was used. The remarks of the students were described by content analysis within the context of qualitative research method. During the research period, computer-based analogy method was applied to the experimental group; on the other hand, traditional teaching method was applied to the control group. In the study, quantitative data as data collection tool was collected through academic success test prepared by the researcher. On the other hand, qualitative data was collected through an interview form, including open-ended questions formed by consulting experts. The results of the study show that the computer-based analogy method is more effective than the present program applications in terms of students' academic success in science lessons and permanence of knowledge. The results of the qualitative data analysis show that the students had positive views related to the lesson made by the computer-based analogy method.

The rapid development and impact of nanoscience and nanotechnology (NSNT) on economy has led policy makers and educators to focus on nanotechnology education. The two main views concerning appropriate level to teach nanoscience and nanotechnology (NSNT): The first favors teaching in higher education; the second recommends familiarizing and teaching in all grade levels. Aim of this study is to determine the opinions about NSNT education and to propose NSNT education for biology curriculum using the current status. A teacher interview form was used for data collection and applied to 121 biology teachers. Data collected via questionnaires were analyzed through quantitative descriptive analysis. Biology teachers' opinions of NSNT education focused on definition, awareness, importance and developments, benefits, applications, risks and ethical issues. Participants presented view of integrating nanotechnology topics into the curriculum and expected a positive impact on students' career preferences. Teachers believed that prior training and readiness were not meeting the required levels; also, difficulties such as conceptualization and mentally visualizing, technical and infrastructure deficiencies, were the serious obstacles to be overcome for successful implementation. High cost was also a negative impact on integration of NSNT in schools/classes.

During the last three decades, chemical education in Slovenia has developed mainly in two chemistry education research groups, one located at the University of Ljubljana and the other at the University of Maribor. The present study aims to identify research papers in the field of chemical education published between 1991 and 2019 through a database survey. From a total of 273 identified research papers in the field of chemical education, an analysis of the papers published in respected international and Slovenian journals and monographs revealed four main research fields: (1) Submicrorepresentations, Models and Animations, (2) Chemistry Teacher Education, (3) Experimental Work, and (4) Conceptions of Basic Chemical Concepts. For further analysis, only papers published in English in respected peer-reviewed international journals were used (N = 41). Based on citations in Web of Science or Scopus, it seems that papers published in the first field have the greatest impact on the international research community. Some research monographs published in Slovenian aim specifically at contributing to bridging the gap between chemical education research and classroom practice, but further actions are necessary to achieve this goal in the future.

Scientific disciplines spanning biology, biochemistry, and biophysics involve the study of proteins and their functions. Visualization of protein structures represents a barrier to education and research in these disciplines for students who are blind or visually impaired. Here, we present a software plugin for readily producing variable-height tactile graphics of proteins using the free biomolecular visualization software Visual Molecular Dynamics (VMD) and protein structure data that is publicly available through the Protein Data Bank. Our method also supports interactive tactile visualization of proteins with VMD on electronic refreshable tactile display devices. Employing our method in an academic laboratory has enabled an undergraduate student who is blind to carry out research alongside her sighted peers. By making the study of protein structures accessible to students who are blind or visually impaired, we aim to promote diversity and inclusion in STEM education and research.

This study reports the effectiveness of nanoscience activities in enhancing secondary school students' understanding of two chemistry concepts: structure of atom and acid and bases. For the purpose of this study, quasi experiment was employed to 163 Grade 10 students from the Northern Region of Malaysia. Sample from the experimental group was exposed to a series of nanoscience activities lasted for 10 weeks. Students' understanding on the two chemistry concepts was tested using Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT). The CAT consists of multiple-choice questions and openended questions. Data obtained from CAT was analysed using one-way ANCOVA to identify the effectiveness of nanoscience activity in enhancing students' understanding of chemistry concepts. The findings show that there were statistically significant differences between experimental and control groups' mean scores (F (1,160) = 167.82, p < 0.05 n[subscript p] [superscript 2] = 0.512) with the experimental group students reporting higher mean. The ANCOVA result indicated experimental group students' understanding of chemistry concepts significantly higher than the comparison group. The qualitative analysis of open-ended responses further supports findings obtained from the quantitative analysis. The study suggests that integrating nanoscience into the contemporary teaching of chemistry is relevant and appropriate.

Visuo-semiotic models, such as Lewis structures and ball & stick models, are widely used to enhance students' learning. However, there is limited research about the impact of these models on specific visuo-semiotic reasoning skills. In the current research, we aimed to determine the extent to which physical molecular models could enhance specific visuo-semiotic reasoning skills among students. The research question that we explored was, "what is the impact of physical molecular models on Grade 11 students' visuo-semiotic reasoning skills related to Lewis structures and ball & stick models of ammonia?" In this mixed-methods research, we collected data from purposively selected Grade 11 chemistry students aged between 15 and 18 from an under-resourced school in South Africa. Through a quasi-experimental design, participants in the experimental group (n = 101) used physical molecular models to learn about Lewis structure and ball & stick models of ammonia while participants in the control group (n = 100) did not. We subsequently tested students' visuo-semiotic reasoning skills. Results show that using physical molecular models significantly improved students' visuo-semiotic reasoning skills and reduced associated learning difficulties. We, therefore, recommend that these models should be used as an instructional tool to enhance learning.

Spatial ability is an important tool in chemistry and this ability can be improved. Various technologies have been used to improve spatial ability. However, it is not clear if viewing technologies should take the place of the model kit; the traditional method of learning about molecular structures. Our research aims to address this gap. In our study, we aimed to take advantage of student affinity to technology to drive spatial ability improvements (in the context of chemistry) by having students experience molecules in virtual space using modern viewing technologies (WBVE, AR, and VR). Students were first engaged with the technologies then were assessed to see if their ability to solve problems relating to 3D-molecular structure improved. The mean spatial ability of students improved over the course of the semester (permutation test, p < 0.05) and students using model kits scored higher than those using the technologies (t-test, p < 0.05). The collection and assessment of anonymous, aggregated, student responses for this study was conducted with the approval of the University of Calgary ethics board (REB13-0724). [Articles in this journal were presented at the University of Calgary Conference on Postsecondary Learning and Teaching.]