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This thesis is situated in the field of applied linguistics, education and European Studies. The empirical part examines outcomes in a two-way immersion (TWI) education model in Berlin (SESB) that go beyond linguistic or academic achievements. Based on a peace-linguistic framework established for the purpose of this study, this thesis assesses to what extent SESB programmes are associated with dimensions related to peace education, social capital and critical applied linguistics. Additionally, a teacher survey looks at attitudes towards bilingual and monolingual education and social integration. The findings are discussed in the framework of previous studies, chiefly from the USA, and in terms of language policy development in Germany and in Europe. This leads to a number of recommendations for stakeholders and policymakers. Employing a quasi-experimental design, involving a TWI and a control group, data were collected through a questionnaire survey of 14-18 year-old students (N=603) and teachers (N=32) in Berlin, which were analysed using primarily quantitative methods (including multiple regression) but with some qualitative elements. Based on statistically significant effects with at least small effect sizes, it was established that students in SESB had a greater sense of inclusion among classmates and greater conflict resolution skills than the control group. When looking at effects in subgroups (students with German, bilingual or non-German language backgrounds) there were also positive effects, however, the groups were affected in different ways, as is set out in this thesis. Furthermore, SESB also had a positive effect on relationships between parents and teachers, as well as on the students’ language attitudes and use patterns. In conclusion, it is argued that, besides personal and societal multilingualism, TWI programmes in Berlin are associated with greater potential for cohesion in the school class, and may benefit wider social integration of different language communities. Additionally, this thesis introduces German TWI programmes to an English-language audience.

This explanatory quasi-experimental sequential mixed-methods research examined the impact of study abroad in the UK, the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand on Omani students' Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), Self-Efficacy in Intercultural English Language Use (SEIELU), and Intercultural Interaction Frequency (IIF). Meaningful intercultural engagements were considered the key to further development of the intercultural competencies under study (Meier & Daniels, 2013; Schartner & Young, 2020), approached through a newly developed model, Developmental Model of Intercultural Communicative Competence (DMICC), and subsequently new measurement scales used as pre- and post-tests: a 58-item multidimensional ICC scale, a 14-item unidimensional SEIELU scale and a 3-item IIF scale. The quantitative (foundation) inquiry was followed up by a qualitative inquiry through the use of semi-structured interviews and a survey open-ended question for an in-depth exploration of the key quantitative findings. The quantitative study sample included a total of 343 Omani study-abroad and stay-in-Oman students, aged 17-52 years, and the qualitative sample included 11 semi-structured interview participants (10 UK & 1 New Zealand-based) and 15 UK-based open-ended question respondents. Contrary to previous research (Al-Makhmari & Amzat, 2012) and prevailing belief, the quantitative inquiry revealed that the one-year abroad, no matter the country of stay, gender, type of stay abroad (alone or with one's own Omani family), and with previous intercultural experiences or not, did not yield any significant changes in the respondents' ICC, SEIELU, and IIF levels. The educational level and multilingualism also did not seem to play any considerable roles in this regard. A period of more than six years of stay abroad was a requirement for the participants to experience an advancement in these respective aspects. Both the quantitative and qualitative findings showed that the participants had limited frequency, depth, and breadth in interactions with the host locals due, according to the qualitative findings, to cultural, linguistic, personality-related and cognitive reasons as most frequently expressed causes, as well as educational, family, communication skills-related, and emotional reasons. The qualitative results also showed that the experience was also more triggered by instrumental and less self-determined goals. Consequently, the participants' intercultural learning from study abroad was more limited to knowledge of the host culture's tangible elements, education system, and correction of some stereotypes. English learning was also more restricted to the acquisition of vocabulary, language expressions, grammar, word pronunciation, understanding locals' English accents, accented English, and reading and writing skill development. Speaking was the least practised language skill. Enjoyment of being abroad and with other Omani and Arab students, travelling, and feelings of independence and self-reliance were their other benefits of studying abroad. Academically, they could develop research competence and field knowledge. Despite the limited learning benefits, students evaluated study abroad highly. Higher levels of SEIELU were found achievable through deeper intercultural interactions whose fulfilment was attainable through the development of ICC, primarily through the enhancement of more positive attitudes towards cultural differences in the first place, and knowledge and awareness of the host culture than the mere frequency of intercultural interactions, negative intercultural emotion control, and critical thinking and communication skills.

Monolithic views of language that privilege standard varieties of English, as well as technical and instrumental understandings of English teacher responsibilities have been increasingly critiqued by researchers interested in critical English teacher education and the promotion of Teaching English as an International Language (TEIL). A more holistic approach to teacher education, has been advocated instead, one that takes into consideration critical identity constructions and negotiations as part of English teacher education. An area of research that is often overlooked is that of English Language Teacher Educators (ELTEs), and their engagement with their own identities as ELTEs in a given context, which is of particular salience in post-colonial contexts. Thus, this study had the aim to examine how professional identities of ELTEs might evolve considering current socio-political factors surrounding TEIL in Colombia. Framed by an interpretive paradigm and a critical action research approach, this in-depth study explores how a group of 5 ELTEs have constructed and transformed their identity in a Colombian English Teacher Education institution. The study was focused on their ability to critically reflect on their identities by means of collaborative learning through small study groups, of which the author was a member. Three data collection methods were used: interviews to explore current ELTEs' identities; 5 small-group study events as a method to raise awareness of tensions around EIL; and ELTEs' reflective accounts to access the effect of the group experience in their identity construction. The main findings of this investigation showed some degree of change in ELTEs' professional identities in relation to the use of English as an International Language (EIL), namely becoming more critical towards the politics of English and its implications at local and global levels, ELTEs' emotional dimension showed paramount importance in the construction of their professional identities. Illustrating the on-going impact of this study design, participant ELTEs found new development and alternative research options in their own professional practices, such as using collaborative learning groups for their own professional development in their undergraduate language teacher programme at their institution. This indicates that a shift in ELTEs' conception of English can trigger other changes in their political stance as well as their professional identities and practices. The findings of this study might be useful for ELTEs, language teacher programmes, and other educational stakeholders who oversee the policies of foreign languages (English) in Colombia and other (post-colonial) regions.

There are 299 living languages in China (Ethnologue, 2017) and approximately 2000 different mutually unintelligible languages and dialects spoken in China at county and municipal levels(Gao, 2012; Li, 2006; Tsao, 1999). At policy level, Mandarin Chinese has been promoted as the only nation-wide official language since 1956 (Hu, 2002; Li, 2006). In addition, at institutional level, Mandarin Chinese is also the only language which is officially used as medium of instruction in both public and private schools in Han ethnic area (Ministry of Education, 2017). When it comes to languages used in English language classes, the Chinese Ministry of Education encourages English teachers to use English as much as possible at senior secondary school level to develop Chinese learner's communicative skills (Ministry of Education, 2017). Apparently, there is a discrepancy between monolingual policy and multilingual reality in China. However, very little research has attempted to investigate multilingual situation in school contexts in China, nor teachers' and learners' perceptions of the monolingual language policy in school settings. A better understanding of the multilingual situation in school contexts could provide an insightful implication to language policy makers on national language planning as well as institutional language planning. Thus, this study aims to explore the discrepancy that might exist between largely monolingual policy and multilingual reality in a local public school in south China. Second, this study also aims to explore the English teachers' and English learners' perceptions and practices regarding language awareness, translation and translanguaging. This could develop a step towards context-sensitive bi-/multilingual pedagogy in similar contexts. This study adopts a sequential mixed-method research design. 306 learners and 15 teachers participated in the quantitative phase and 9 learners, and 10 teachers joined the second qualitative phase. The findings show that between them the 306 learners can use 41 different languages and language varieties. The qualitative data reveals that both teachers and learners overwhelmingly agree that translation and translanguaging are perceived as efficient tools for English teaching and learning. However, my findings clearly demonstrate that they also believe translation and translanguaging are barriers to achieving standard English, which is widely accepted as a goal. Finally, many learners reported that they adopt translanguaging techniques to support their English writing. However, teachers have a mixed opinion towards using translanguaging in English writing. The findings from this study, combined with existing literature leads to implications for research, and potentially for practice and policy.

The last two decades have set the global trend of internationalized education on a new course. Besides the usual flow of international students from their home countries to Western universities, an opposite flow emerged. In the Middle East, for instance, the number of international campuses nearly doubled between 2000 and 2009, and Egypt has been no exception. Starting 2003, Egypt has witnessed a remarkable surge of private international universities that use English as a medium of instruction, adopt foreign curricula and have partnerships with universities in Europe, North America, and recently Asia. This trend has raised identity loss concerns among many intellectuals and educational researchers whose worries mainly revolved around national, religious, and linguistic identities. This longitudinal qualitative study, thus, aimed to understand how Egyptian freshman students at an international University in Cairo construct and negotiate their national, religious and linguistic identities. A semi-structured interview was conducted with 12 students at three different points of their first year at the university, and a focus group was organized at the beginning of their second year. Results revealed a more complex picture than the widespread simplistic rhetoric about international universities’ influence on students’ identity construction. The participants’ social and academic backgrounds and unique life experiences were an important factor in their identity construction and negotiation; they seemed to determine the ranking of those identities on their hierarchy of identities, which in turn shaped how they constructed and negotiated them. Moreover, participants realized and used their agency to negotiate their identities and resolve identity crises when these happened. They also resorted to other identity agents, particularly family and students’ clubs. This study contributes to the Egyptian debate on educational reform and adds to the literature on English as a medium of instruction, identity formation, and internationalized education by shedding light on the intricate ways in which students navigate through international education, and by suggesting pedagogical and policy implications applicable not only to liberal-education institutions in the region, but perhaps also to other universities in Europe and North America that attract international students, particularly with the recent waves of refugees from the Middle East.

This dissertation explores the beliefs of students on the relevance (if at all) of addressing the Fifth skill, culture, in English education in a Pakistani context, with sub question that aims to answer what definitions of the Fifth skill (Tomalin, 2008) could be appropriate to English education in a Pakistani context? So far the research done on English language teaching in Pakistan and anything related to it is based on teachers’ beliefs alone, therefore it was important for me as an English Language teacher to find out what the students attitudes were towards the integration of 5th skill in the classroom. However, I did not limit the research to students’ beliefs alone; my research also includes the perception of the teachers. This is not only to give validity to the research, but also to realize any differences regarding the teachers’ beliefs on the issue in previous researches. To explore the role of 5th skill in teaching English languages in a Pakistani classroom, at the secondary level, this dissertation collected the responses elicited from both the students and the teacher through a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussion, and a thematic analysis was carried out. The results of this study highlight a number of issues regarding cultural acceptance, language acceptance and integrating of 5th skill in language teaching. Certain interesting contradictions regarding English culture(s) and English language and their status in Pakistani society also emerged. The findings suggest that students regarded the 5th skill as an essential source for better understanding the concepts and their functional use of English language, as it presents them with real life situations. However, where the 5th skill was seen as an important tool to enhance language competence, the students also supported that both the students’ culture as well as the culture associated with English Language be incorporated in the language class. The students saw integrating 5th skill in a language class as a means to express their ideas, values and experiences, and an opportunity to make others understand them and their point of view, and not restrict the use of Fifth skill to a one way cultural awareness stream only. The dissertation also questioned the current status of English as a second language as perceived by the students and its implications on the future of English Language teaching in Pakistan.

The study is based in critical issues in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) as second or additional language and informed by Critical Pedagogy (CP), the study uses thematic discourse analysis through critical analysis techniques. The main focus of this research is to explore the extent of intercultural understanding and perceptions of the English Language Teachers (ELTs) towards students in their culturally heterogeneous ELT classrooms about certain academic behaviours, namely plagiarism (Academic Integrity) and learners’ classroom participation and relationship of these academic tasks to the cultural orientation of English Language Learners (ELLs) in ELT classrooms in the Canadian context. Participating ELTs teach adult students of color and ethnic diversity in different English language teaching situations and come both from across Canada, at the macro level (Stage 1-survey questionnaire), and from Nova Scotia, at the micro level (Stage 2-focus group discussions). The thesis also demonstrates factors that may contribute to Canadian ELTs’ perceptions about the issue of understanding non-white and racially non-main stream ELLs. The thesis aims at bringing attention to the need for a collaboratively developed Professional Development (PD) training component focused on intercultural understanding from a critical perspective, for the ELTs in the Canadian context. It is expected that the findings will gain some traction among the ELT community, especially in the Canadian context and will contribute to highlighting the importance of understanding of cultural differences and inclusion of this understating in the continuous professional development of English language teachers.

In preparation for Thailand to join AEC (ASEAN Economic Community) in 2015, the Thai Government has made efforts to prepare its citizens for this competitive market by improving their English competence. This has driven the Education Ministry of Thailand to establish bilingual Thai-English education, namely through the English Programme (EP) and Mini English Programme (MEP) in both public and private schools. While in-service teachers are trained in teaching in EP and MEP through the cooperation between the Educational Ministry and four institutes: ELI (English Language Institution), ERIC (English Resource and Institutional Centre), British Council and Chulalongkorn University (Ministry of Education, 2003; Punthumasen, 2007), it is found that pre-service teacher training for bilingual education is relatively new and there has been little/no research in terms of its effectiveness in Thailand. This study examined Thai pre-service teachers’ perceptions of an English teacher education programme at a university in Bangkok, regarding the programme potential of preparing them to work in bilingual schools, especially for teaching in EP and MEP in the future. A mixed-methods methodology underpinned the study by providing method and data triangulation. This methodology involved the adoption of self-report questionnaires (n=37) and follow-up Facebook-chats (n=17) as method triangulation, and from Thai pre-service teachers in different year groups as data triangulation. Descriptive analysis i.e. frequencies and percentages was used to analyse closed questions of the questionnaires and content analysis was employed for analysing data from open questions of the questionnaire and the Facebook-chats. A good understanding of the English bilingual education system and teacher requirements respective for work in bilingual schools in Thailand was displayed and in line with the Ministry guidelines as expressed in the Ministry’s order number Wor Gor 65/2544 as of 9 October 2001.The findings revealed that they felt they needed English knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge and Experiences in preparing them for work in bilingual schools also involved. It was also found that native-English speaker norm regarding communication and pronunciation skill resulted in less confidence in English proficiency. They desired to learn more about English especially relating to oracy skills, followed by a topic relating to teaching through English. The findings of the study contribute to the development of teacher training programme for bilingual education. Practical suggestions and future research are firstly related to the shift from native English speaking norms to bilingual or multilingual speaking norms to eliminate the feeling of failure to the linguistic competence. Secondly, CLIL and Content-based instruction are suggested to respond to the participants’ need in learning a topic relating to teach through English.

This current research study is an exploratory study which has the aim to investigate language anxiety experienced by students majoring in English for International Communication (EIC) at the college in a university in the southern part of Thailand. This study adopted an interpretive methodology that used a sequential mixed methods approach for data collection. There were 42 students participating in the quantitative study whilst 6 students in qualitative study. The data, both quantitative and qualitative, were collected through questionnaire, diary and semi-structured interview. Data were analysed quantitatively using SPSS descriptive statistics and Factor Analysis while the thematic analysis was used as qualitative method. The findings revealed that all participants experienced language anxiety in class. Their sources of anxiety mostly were from the students themselves. Diary writing activity—one of the research instruments—had a very positive effect as it enabled students to deal with their anxiety and improved the situation.

This thesis presents the findings from a qualitative investigation into teachers’ use of code-switching in bilingual classrooms in Wales. The results of the 2001 census show a slight increase in the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales, to 21%. This change, combined with increasing governmental support for the Welsh language, suggests that we may now be entering a period of stable Welsh-English bilingualism for those who speak Welsh. This study builds upon previous research into teachers’ use of code-switching by investigating 6 teachers’ perceptions of code-switching during the research period. It is proposed that teachers’ perceptions and awareness of their bilingual identity, examined through case studies have a central role in the decisions made in the bilingual classroom. Synthesising various approaches to code-switching provides educators with an overview of code-switching and its implications for instruction and the classroom as a community. This study makes an important contribution to the understanding of the dynamics of code-switching at classroom level rather than syntactic level, as there is very little research into the bilingual teaching interface in Wales. Ideally, the findings will contribute to the debate on multilingual practice as a natural and effective means of language teaching as well as a force for intercultural understanding. The author is interested in exploring how far and in what ways teachers are aware of the benefits of code-switching and to raise awareness of the relationship between code choice and wider social factors. The study has two main objectives. Firstly, to investigate how far teachers employ code-switching as a strategy and their reasons for doing so. Secondly, to explore how far, and in what ways, these teachers’ identities undergo a process of transformation as a result of their experiences of the research process. The study provides a number of useful insights into the dynamic interplay between code-switching and learning as a legitimate way of using a shared language to scaffold pupils’ learning. A range of teachers’ perceptions of code-switching were detected and the significance of these findings are discussed. The study provides an insight into perceptions of the functions and rationale for code-switching from a teacher’s perspective, which may contribute to the multilingual turn debate and have pedagogical implications.

The importance of curriculum in education is uncontested. Nevertheless, this has not translated into a thorough examination of what constitutes a ‘quality’ curriculum. Extant educational quality models mostly investigated ‘quality’ from students’ perspective and were predominantly conducted in the business and engineering fields. Some of these models encompass curriculum quality dimensions, nonetheless, given their focus on student perspectives, emerging curriculum themes were limited to issues of interest to students only, such as the number of courses, and the courses enhancing students’ job perspectives. To date, only a few studies pertaining to quality and service quality have been conducted in the field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Thus, this exploratory sequential mixed-methods case study was conducted in an English for Academic Purposes programme in the State of Qatar to uncover teachers’ perceptions of curriculum quality and its attributes. Additionally, this study seeks to discover whether teachers’ perceptions of ‘quality’ affected their curriculum implementation. Qualitative data indicates that participants understood a quality curriculum as one that meets stakeholders’ needs in addition to meeting twenty-five attributes pertaining to curriculum design, course content, and resources. The findings reveal that curriculum design is the most important aspect of quality followed by course content and resources. Qualitative data also revealed that the exclusion of teachers from curriculum decision-making, students’ admission criteria, and lack of trust were detrimental to the quality of curriculum design. Curriculum relevance to students is of concern to some participants, since students and the wider community do not perceive the English for Academic Purposes courses as relevant. Although the participants’ do not deem quality of resources as an essential attribute of curriculum quality, it affects their curriculum implementation. Overall, the quantitative data supports the qualitative findings with respect to the importance of the curriculum quality attributes. Two curriculum quality attributes emerge from two participants’ comments related to curriculum design section in the questionnaire. Based on the study findings, it is recommended that the needs and situation analyses be modified at the study site to address concerns raised by the participants. It is also suggested that the university explores different options of English for Academic Purpose programmes to enhance students’ perceptions of the relevance of the English for Academic Purposes courses.

Cooperative learning is a pedagogic approach that is prevalent in all levels of education as it is seen to yield higher learning outcomes than individual learning (Johnson & Johnson, 2009). In the global university, it is believed to have the potential of increasing intercultural contact since students work together in small groups to conduct projects related to their discipline. The assumption is that students will learn the intercultural skills they need for an interconnected world by studying and learning in groups with linguistically and ethnically diverse others (Association of Community Colleges Canada, 2010). Although cooperative learning is based on social interdependence in which group members work together for the mutual benefit of their group, there has been very little research conducted into the relationships that the group members actually have with each other. It is the aim of this study to examine these relationships and find out their impacts on cooperative learning experiences. Drawing upon insights from pragmatism and dialogism, in this thesis, learning is conceptualised as an embodied, socially situated, and relational process. This means that the key to learning is the relationships that learners can construct with others. An integral part of forming relationships is the negotiation of identities in which people see themselves and others as certain kinds of people. In learning in cooperative groups, the ability to negotiate legitimate, competent identities is regarded as essential. For this reason, the study reported in this thesis uses a view of identity as socially constructed as a lens though which to analyse relationships in cooperative learning. The study focuses on the experiences of 12 students participating in group learning projects in first year business courses. Narrative inquiry is the methodology used as it is ideal for highlighting the complexities in human relationships and issues of power. The narratives of four international, four Canadian immigrant, and four Canadian-born students are analysed. A key finding from the analysis is that the relationship students are able to negotiate in cooperative groups and the types of identities they are able to construct with others strongly impacts their learning. There appeared to be a hierarchical order to student identities in groups with Canadian-born students assuming more powerful identities. Frequently these students are results oriented showing only interest in achieving high marks in their group projects. This leads to an absence of emotional connectedness amongst students and a disregard for the process aspect of working together which is core to cooperative learning. The thesis concludes with a discussion of the ways that cooperative learning could be changed to make it more process oriented. Finally, I make recommendations for further research which can build on the findings from this study.

England’s long history of education has witnessed many conflicts in regard to language teaching. In this thesis, I investigate the conflicts surrounding two language education reform movements, Language Awareness and Knowledge About Language, during the Conservative administration between 1979 and 1997. The investigation examines official and non-official plans and policy texts produced by various groups and actors, notably Hawkins and Cox, that detail how the teaching of ‘Language’ should be conducted in England’s state school curriculum. The focus of the research is upon identifying what LA and KAL were as pedagogical concepts; why LA was reconstituted as KAL; what the motives underpinning these various plans and policies were; and finally, why efforts to establish LA and KAL were resisted. In the effort to make sense of this history, I draw theoretically and methodologically upon the work of Foucault, Fairclough, Bernstein and Ager. Limitations of my interpretation of this history notwithstanding, my findings revealed that LA was an educational reform movement that emerged from common schooling discourses, and one that sought to improve its educational provision. While LA was originally intended to be a subject in its own right that bridged the English and Foreign Language subject areas, Her Majesty’s Inspectorate reconstituted LA and placed its responsibility firmly within the English subject area. The motives underpinning LA and KAL planning and policy are varied. Those underpinning the policies, however, are distinctly ideological in nature, drawing a strong relationship between language education and democracy. Nearly all motives pertain to what Bernstein calls a competence model of education, the modes of which are notably attuned to addressing inequality and promoting social integration. LA and KAL were reforms that were both ill understood and resented, for varying and complex reasons, by educators and the Conservatives alike. The thesis closes with directions for future research.

The self, the self-concept and identity are contested areas in various domains of enquiry. In cognitive psychology, the self is seen as a powerful explanatory construct. Indeed, in the education context, self-concept has been associated with achievement and motivation, though sociocultural approaches have highlighted the failure of certain schools of thought to take account of contextual and relational self processes. Nonetheless, despite the importance of the concept of self for learning, it has only fairly recently become of significant interest in the field of second or foreign language learning (L2). This longitudinal study focuses on the nature of, and changes in, students’ L2 reading self-concepts. In order to navigate the complexity of the theoretical issues surrounding the self construct, the approach of Rom Harré (1998) was adopted in which the self is seen as a frame for the discourse of personal attributes, reflexive self-beliefs and action. This perspective underpinned a mixed methods approach to enquiry with a group of international students taking a nine-month business pre-masters pathway programme. Based on the work of Pollard and Filer (1996), a framework for the narrative description of L2 reading self-concept was devised which provided a broad account of self-views of L2 reading, showing how these are linked in important ways to personal histories and the situational context. It was found that perception of competence was the main area of L2 reading self-concept change. Findings also included the importance of competence perceptions and the role of language knowledge in distinguishing L2 reading self-views. It is hoped that the model of L2 reading self-concept developed will enhance understanding of students’ experience of reading and learning through a second or foreign language. This should enable educators to support students more effectively, especially in international education contexts in which students study through another language. Areas for further research into L2 reading self-views in this type of context are suggested.